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Stephen Hawking
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Stephen Hawking
British physicist
Also known as: Stephen William Hawking
Written and fact-checked by
Last Updated: Mar 12, 2024 • Article History
Stephen Hawking
Stephen Hawking
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Category: Science & Tech
In full: Stephen William Hawking
Born: January 8, 1942, Oxford, Oxfordshire, England
Died: March 14, 2018, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire (aged 76)
Awards And Honors: Presidential Medal of Freedom (2009) Copley Medal (2006)
Subjects Of Study: black hole mini black hole space-time
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Stephen Hawking (born January 8, 1942, Oxford, Oxfordshire, England—died March 14, 2018, Cambridge, Cambridgeshire) was an English theoretical physicist whose theory of exploding black holes drew upon both relativity theory and quantum mechanics. He also worked with space-time singularities.Stephen Hawking experiencing zero gravity
Stephen Hawking experiencing zero gravity
Stephen Hawking (centre) experiencing zero gravity aboard a modified Boeing 727, April 2007.
Hawking studied physics at University College, Oxford (B.A., 1962), and Trinity Hall, Cambridge (Ph.D., 1966). He was elected a research fellow at Gonville and Caius College at Cambridge. In the early 1960s Hawking contracted amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, an incurable degenerative neuromuscular disease. He continued to work despite the disease’s progressively disabling effects.Model of a molecule. Atom, Biology, Molecular Structure, Science, Science and Technology. Homepage 2010 arts and entertainment, history and society
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Stephen Hawking
Stephen Hawking
Well-wishers greeting physicist Stephen Hawking (in the wheelchair) in 2007 at the Kennedy Space Center Shuttle Landing Facility in Florida after a zero-gravity flight.
Stephen Hawking and his daughter, Lucy
Stephen Hawking and his daughter, Lucy
Stephen Hawking with his daughter, Lucy, at NASA\'s 50th Anniversary Lecture Series, April 21, 2008.
Hawking worked primarily in the field of general relativity and particularly on the physics of black holes. In 1971 he suggested the formation, following the big bang, of numerous objects containing as much as one billion tons of mass but occupying only the space of a proton. These objects, called mini black holes, are unique in that their immense mass and gravity require that they be ruled by the laws of relativity, while their minute size requires that the laws of quantum mechanics apply to them also. In 1974 Hawking proposed that, in accordance with the predictions of quantum theory, black holes emit subatomic particles until they exhaust their energy and finally explode. Hawking’s work greatly spurred efforts to theoretically delineate the properties of black holes, objects about which it was previously thought that nothing could be known. His work was also important because it showed these properties’ relationship to the laws of classical thermodynamics and quantum mechanics.
Stephen Hawking receiving the Copley Medal
Stephen Hawking receiving the Copley Medal
Stephen Hawking (left) receiving the Copley Medal of the Royal Society, 2006.
Stephen Hawking
Stephen Hawking
Stephen Hawking, 2007.
Hawking’s contributions to physics earned him many exceptional honours. In 1974 the Royal Society elected him one of its youngest fellows. He became professor of gravitational physics at Cambridge in 1977, and in 1979 he was appointed to Cambridge’s Lucasian professorship of mathematics, a post once held by Isaac Newton. Hawking was made a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in 1982 and a Companion of Honour in 1989. He also received the Copley Medal from the Royal Society in 2006 and the U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2009. In 2008 he accepted a visiting research chair at the Perimeter Institute for Theoretical Physics in Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.His publications included The Large Scale Structure of Space-Time (1973; coauthored with G.F.R. Ellis), Superspace and Supergravity (1981), The Very Early Universe (1983), and the best sellers A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes (1988), The Universe in a Nutshell (2001), A Briefer History of Time (2005), and The Grand Design (2010; coauthored with Leonard Mlodinow).Motor neuron historyTools
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about a group of muscle-wasting disorders. For the disease amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, also known as motor neurone disease, see Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.
Motor neuron diseasespinal diagram
Specialty Neurology
Motor neuron diseases or motor neurone diseases (MNDs) are a group of rare neurodegenerative disorders that selectively affect motor neurons, the cells which control voluntary muscles of the body.[1][2] They include amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS),[3][4] progressive bulbar palsy (PBP), pseudobulbar palsy, progressive muscular atrophy (PMA), primary lateral sclerosis (PLS), spinal muscular atrophy (SMA) and monomelic amyotrophy (MMA), as well as some rarer variants resembling ALS.Motor neuron diseases affect both children and adults.[5] While each motor neuron disease affects patients differently, they all cause movement-related symptoms, mainly muscle weakness.[6] Most of these diseases seem to occur randomly without known causes, but some forms are inherited.[2] Studies into these inherited forms have led to discoveries of various genes (e.g. SOD1) that are thought to be important in understanding how the disease occurs.[7]Symptoms of motor neuron diseases can be first seen at birth or can come on slowly later in life. Most of these diseases worsen over time; while some, such as ALS, shorten one\'s life expectancy, others do not.[2] Currently, there are no approved treatments for the majority of motor neuron disorders, and care is mostly symptomatic.[2]Signs and symptomsA man with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). (A) He needs assistance to stand. (B) Advanced atrophy of the tongue. (C) There is upper limb and truncal muscle atrophy with a positive Babinski sign. (D) Advanced thenar muscle atrophy.[8]
Signs and symptoms depend on the specific disease, but motor neuron diseases typically manifest as a group of movement-related symptoms.[6] They come on slowly, and worsen over the course of more than three months. Various patterns of muscle weakness are seen, and muscle cramps and spasms may occur. One can have difficulty breathing with climbing stairs (exertion), difficulty breathing when lying down (orthopnea), or even respiratory failure if breathing muscles become involved. Bulbar symptoms, including difficulty speaking (dysarthria), difficulty swallowing (dysphagia), and excessive saliva production (sialorrhea), can also occur. Sensation, or the ability to feel, is typically not affected. Emotional disturbance (e.g. pseudobulbar affect) and cognitive and behavioural changes (e.g. problems in word fluency, decision-making, and memory) are also seen.[2][6] There can be lower motor neuron findings (e.g. muscle wasting, muscle twitching), upper motor neuron findings (e.g. brisk reflexes, Babinski reflex, Hoffman\'s reflex, increased muscle tone), or both.[6]Motor neuron diseases are seen both in children and adults.[2] Those that affect children tend to be inherited or familial, and their symptoms are either present at birth or appear before learning to walk. Those that affect adults tend to appear after age 40.[2] The clinical course depends on the specific disease, but most progress or worsen over the course of months.[6] Some are fatal (e.g. ALS), while others are not (e.g. PLS).[2]Patterns of weakness
Various patterns of muscle weakness occur in different motor neuron diseases.[6] Weakness can be symmetric or asymmetric, and it can occur in body parts that are distal, proximal, or both. According to Statland et al., there are three main weakness patterns that are seen in motor neuron diseases, which are:[6][9]Asymmetric distal weakness without sensory loss (e.g. ALS, PLS, PMA, MMA)
Symmetric weakness without sensory loss (e.g. PMA, PLS)
Symmetric focal midline proximal weakness (neck, trunk, bulbar involvement; e.g. ALS, PBP, PLS)
Lower and upper motor neuron findings
Motor neuron diseases are on a spectrum in terms of upper and lower motor neuron involvement.[6] Some have just lower or upper motor neuron findings, while others have a mix of both. Lower motor neuron (LMN) findings include muscle atrophy and fasciculations, and upper motor neuron (UMN) findings include hyperreflexia, spasticity, muscle spasm, and abnormal reflexes.[2][6]Pure upper motor neuron diseases, or those with just UMN findings, include PLS.[10]Pure lower motor neuron diseases, or those with just LMN findings, include PMA.[11]Motor neuron diseases with both UMN and LMN findings include both familial and sporadic ALS.[12]Causes
Most cases are sporadic and their causes are usually not known.[2] It is thought that environmental, toxic, viral, or genetic factors may be involved.[2]DNA damage
TAR DNA-binding protein 43 (TDP-43), is a critical component of the non-homologous end joining (NHEJ) enzymatic pathway that repairs DNA double-strand breaks in pluripotent stem cell-derived motor neurons.[13] TDP-43 is rapidly recruited to double-strand breaks where it acts as a scaffold for the recruitment of the XRCC4-DNA ligase protein complex that then acts to repair double-strand breaks. About 95% of ALS patients have abnormalities in the nucleus-cytoplasmic localization in spinal motor neurons of TDP43. In TDP-43 depleted human neural stem cell-derived motor neurons, as well as in sporadic ALS patients\' spinal cord specimens there is significant double-strand break accumulation and reduced levels of NHEJ.[13]Associated risk factors
In adults, men are more commonly affected than women.[2]DiagnosisThis section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (March 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Differential diagnosis can be challenging due to the number of overlapping symptoms, shared between several motor neuron diseases.[14] Frequently, the diagnosis is based on clinical findings (i.e. LMN vs. UMN signs and symptoms, patterns of weakness), family history of MND, and a variation of tests, many of which are used to rule out disease mimics, which can manifest with identical tract. Upper motor neurons originating in the primary motor cortex synapse to either lower motor neurons in the anterior horn of the central gray matter of the spinal cord (insert) or brainstem motor neurons (not shown). Motor neuron disease can affect either upper motor neurons (UMNs) or lower motor neurons (LMNs).
Motor neuron disease describes a collection of clinical disorders, characterized by progressive muscle weakness and the degeneration of the motor neuron on electrophysiological testing. The term \"motor neuron disease\" has varying meanings in different countries. Similarly, the literature inconsistently classifies which degenerative motor neuron disorders can be included under the umbrella term \"motor neuron disease\". The four main types of MND are marked (*) in the table below.[17]All types of MND can be differentiated by two defining characteristics:[6]Is the disease sporadic or inherited?
Is there involvement of the upper motor neurons (UMN), the lower motor neurons (LMN), or both?
Sporadic or acquired MNDs occur in patients with no family history of degenerative motor neuron disease. Inherited or genetic MNDs adhere to one of the following inheritance patterns: autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, or X-linked. Some disorders, like ALS, can occur sporadically (85%) or can have a genetic cause (15%) with the same clinical symptoms and progression of disease.[6]UMNs are motor neurons that project from the cortex down to the brainstem or spinal cord.[18] LMNs originate in the anterior horns of the spinal cord and synapse on peripheral muscles.[18] Both motor neurons are necessary for the strong contraction of a muscle, but damage to an UMN can be distinguished from damage to a LMN by physical exam.[19]Type UMN degeneration LMN degeneration
Sporadic MNDs
Sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)* Yes[6] Yes[6]
Primary lateral sclerosis (PLS)* Yes[6] No[6]
Progressive muscular atrophy (PMA)* No[6] Yes[6]
Progressive bulbar palsy (PBP)* Yes[17] Yes, bulbar region[17]
Pseudobulbar palsy Yes, bulbar region[6] No[6]
Monomelic amyotrophy (MMA) No Yes
Inherited MNDs
Familial amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)* Yes[6] Yes[6]
Tests
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) tests: Analysis of the fluid from around the brain and spinal cord could reveal signs of an infection or inflammation.[16]
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): An MRI of the brain and spinal cord is recommended in patients with UMN signs and symptoms to explore other causes, such as a tumor, inflammation, or lack of blood supply (stroke).[16]
Electromyogram (EMG) & nerve conduction study (NCS): The EMG, which evaluates muscle function, and NCS, which evaluates nerve function, are performed together in patients with LMN signs.
For patients with MND affecting the LMNs, the EMG will show evidence of: (1) acute denervation, which is ongoing as motor neurons degenerate, and (2) chronic denervation and reinnervation of the muscle, as the remaining motor neurons attempt to fill in for lost motor neurons.[16]
By contrast, the NCS in these patients is usually normal. It can show a low compound muscle action potential (CMAP), which results from the loss of motor neurons, but the sensory neurons should remain unaffected.[20]
Tissue biopsy: Taking a small sample of a muscle or nerve may be necessary if the EMG/NCS is not specific enough to rule out other causes of progressive muscle weakness, but it is rarely used.
Treatment
There are no known curative treatments for the majority of motor neuron disorders. Please refer to the articles on individual disorders for more details.[21]Prognosis
The table below lists life expectancy for patients who are diagnosed with MND.Type Median survival time
from start of symptoms
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) 2–5 years[16][22]
Primary lateral sclerosis (PLS) 8–10 years[16]
Progressive muscular atrophy (PMA) 2–4 years[16]
Progressive bulbar palsy (PBP) 6 months – 3 years[22]
Pseudobulbar palsy No change in survival
Terminology
In the United States and Canada, the term motor neuron disease usually refers to the group of disorders while amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is frequently called Lou Gehrig\'s disease.[2][5][23] In the United Kingdom and Australia, the term motor neuron(e) disease is used for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis,[3][4] although is not uncommon to refer to the entire group.[24][25]While MND refers to a specific subset of similar diseases, there are numerous other diseases of motor neurons that are referred to collectively as \"motor neuron disorders\", for instance the diseases belonging to the spinal muscular atrophies group.[1] However, they are not classified as \"motor neuron diseases\" by the 11th edition of the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-11),[26] which is the definition followed in this article.See also
Spinal muscular atrophies
Hereditary motor and sensory neuropathies
References
Ince PG, Clark B, Holton J, Revesz T, Wharton SB (2008). \"Chapter 13: Diseases of movement and system degenerations\". In Greenfield JG, Love S, Louis DN, Ellison DW (eds.). Greenfield\'s neuropathology. Vol. 1 (8th ed.). London: Hodder Arnold. p. 947. ISBN 978-0-340-90681-1.
\"Motor Neuron Diseases Fact Sheet: National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS)\". ninds.nih.gov. Archived from the original on 13 April 2014. Retrieved 7 November 2010.
\"Motor neurone disease – NHS\". nhs.uk. 15 January 2018. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
Healthdirect Australia (17 April 2020). \"Motor neurone disease (MND)\". healthdirect.gov.au. Retrieved 24 October 2020.
Cooper-Knock J, Jenkins T, Shaw PJ (1 September 2013). Clinical and molecular aspects of motor neuron disease. San Rafael, California. ISBN 978-1-61504-429-0. OCLC 860981760.
Statland JM, Barohn RJ, McVey AL, Katz JS, Dimachkie MM (November 2015). \"Patterns of Weakness, Classification of Motor Neuron Disease, and Clinical Diagnosis of Sporadic Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis\". Neurologic Clinics. 33 (4): 735–748. doi:10.1016/j.ncl.2015.07.006. PMC 4629510. PMID 26515618.
Cooper-Knock J, Jenkins T, Shaw PJ (1 September 2013). Clinical and molecular aspects of motor neuron disease. San Rafael, California (1537 Fourth Street, San Rafael, CA 94901 USA). ISBN 9781615044290. OCLC 860981760.
\"Patient with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) (case | Open-i\". openi.nlm.nih.gov. Archived from the original on 15 December 2018. Retrieved 12 December 2018.
Barohn RJ, Amato AA (May 2013). \"Pattern-recognition approach to neuropathy and neuronopathy\". Neurologic Clinics. 31 (2): 343–361. doi:10.1016/j.ncl.2013.02.001. PMC 3922643. PMID 23642713.
Emos MC, Agarwal S (2022). \"Neuroanatomy, Upper Motor Neuron Lesion\". StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. PMID 30725990. Retrieved 24 June 2022.
\"Progressive Muscular Atrophy – an overview | ScienceDirect Topics\". sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 24 June 2022.
\"Motor Neuron Diseases Fact Sheet | National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke\". ninds.nih.gov. Retrieved 24 June 2022.
Mitra J, Guerrero EN, Hegde PM, Liachko NF, Wang H, Vasquez V, et al. (March 2019). \"Motor neuron disease-associated loss of nuclear TDP-43 is linked to DNA double-strand break repair defects\". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 116 (10): 4696–4705. Bibcode:2019PNAS..116.4696M. doi:10.1073/pnas.1818415116. PMC 6410842. PMID 30770445.
Statland, Jeffrey M.; Barohn, Richard J.; McVey, April L.; Katz, Jonathan; Dimachkie, Mazen M. (2015). \"Patterns of Weakness, Classification of Motor Neuron Disease & Clinical Diagnosis of Sporadic ALS\". Neurologic Clinics. 33 (4): 735–748. doi:10.1016/j.ncl.2015.07.006. ISSN 0733-8619. PMC 4629510. PMID 26515618.
\"Archive | Practical Neurology\". pn.bmj.com. Retrieved 24 June 2022.
Foster LA, Salajegheh MK (January 2019). \"Motor Neuron Disease: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Management\". The American Journal of Medicine. 132 (1): 32–37. doi:10.1016/j.amjmed.2018.07.012. PMID 30075105. S2CID 51910723.
\"What forms does MND take?\". mndnsw.asn.au. Retrieved 11 December 2018.
Blumenfeld H (2002). Neuroanatomy through clinical cases. Sunderland, Mass.: Sinauer. ISBN 087893060-4. OCLC 44628054.
Javed K, Daly DT (2022). \"Neuroanatomy, Lower Motor Neuron Lesion\". StatPearls. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing. PMID 30969636. Retrieved 24 June 2022.
Duleep A, Shefner J (February 2013). \"Electrodiagnosis of motor neuron disease\". Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Clinics of North America. 24 (1): 139–151. doi:10.1016/j.pmr.2012.08.022. PMID 23177036.
\"NIH: ninds: Motor Neuron Diseases Information Page\". 27 March 2019. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
\"Different types of MND\". Irish Motor Neurone Disease Association. Retrieved 12 December 2018.
Shaw PJ (August 2005). \"Molecular and cellular pathways of neurodegeneration in motor neurone disease\". Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry. 76 (8): 1046–1057. doi:10.1136/jnnp.2004.048652. PMC 1739758. PMID 16024877. Many doctors use the terms motor neuron disease and ALS interchangeably.
\"An introduction to motor neurone disease (MND)\" (PDF). motor neurone disease association. 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
Schapira AH, Wszolek ZK, Dawson TM, Wood NW (13 February 2017). Neurodegeneration. Chichester, West Sussex. ISBN 978-1-118-66191-8. OCLC 958876527.
\"8B60 Motor neuron disease\". ICD-11 for Mortality and Morofferity Statistics. World Health Organisation.
External links
Media related to Motor neuron diseases at Wikimedia Commons
Motor neuron diseases at NINDS
Classification
D
ICD-11: 8B60ICD-10: G12.2ICD-9-CM: 335.2MeSH: D016472DiseasesDB: 8358
vte
Diseases of the nervous system, primarily CNS
Inflammation
Brain
Encephalitis Viral encephalitisHerpesviral encephalitisLimbic encephalitisEncephalitis lethargicaCavernous sinus thrombosisBrain abscess Amoebic
Brain and spinal cord
Encephalomyelitis Acute
Degenerative
Extrapyramidal and
movement disorders
Basal ganglia disease Parkinsonism PDPostencephaliticNMSNBIA PKANTauopathy PSPStriatonigral Dystonia Status dystonicusSpasmodic ChoreoathetosisMyoclonus Myoclonic epilepsyAkathisia
Tremor Essential tremorIntention tremorRestless legsStiff-person
Dementia
Tauopathy Alzheimer\'s Early-onsetPrimary progressive aphasiaFrontotemporal dementia/Frontotemporal lobar degeneration Pick\'sLewy bodies dementiaPosterior cortical atrophy
Creutzfeldt–Jakob diseaseVascular dementia
Mitochondrial disease
Leigh syndrome
Demyelinating
AutoimmuneInflammatoryMultiple sclerosisFor more detailed coverage, see Template:Demyelinating diseases of CNS
Episodic/
paroxysmal
Seizures and epilepsy
FocalGeneralisedStatus epilepticusFor more detailed coverage, see Template:Epilepsy
Headache
MigraineClusterTensionFor more detailed coverage, see Template:Headache
Cerebrovascular
TIAStrokeFor more detailed coverage, see Template:Cerebrovascular diseases
Other
Sleep disorders For more detailed coverage, see Template:Sleep
CSF
Intracranial hypertension HydrocephalusNormal pressure hydrocephalusChoroid plexus papillomaIdiopathic intracranial hypertensionCerebral edemaIntracranial hypotension
Other
Brain herniationReye syndromeHepatic encephalopathyToxic encephalopathyHashimoto\'s encephalopathyStatic encephalopathy
Both/either
Degenerative
SA
Friedreich\'s ataxiaAtaxia–telangiectasia
MND
UMN only: Primary lateral sclerosisPseudobulbar palsyHereditary spastic paraplegia
LMN only: Distal hereditary motor neuronopathiesSpinal muscular atrophies SMASMAX1SMAX2DSMA1Congenital DSMASpinal muscular atrophy with lower extremity predominance (SMALED) muscular atrophyProgressive bulbar palsy Fazio–LondeInfantile progressive bulbar palsy
both: Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
Categories: Motor neuron diseasesRare diseasesSystemic atrophies primarily affecting the central nervous systemA Brief History of Time Article
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View historyToolsFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the documentary film on Stephen Hawking, see A Brief History of Time (film). For the biographical film on Stephen Hawking, see The Theory of Everything (2014 film).
A Brief History of Time
First edition
Author Stephen Hawking
Country United Kingdom
Language English
Subject Cosmology
Publisher Bantam Dell Publishing Group
Publication date
April 1, 1988
Media type Print (Hardcover and Paperback)
Pages 256
ISBN 978-0-553-10953-5
OCLC 39256652
Dewey Decimal
523.1 21
LC Class QB981 .H377 1998
Followed by Black Holes and Baby Universes and Other Essays A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes is a book on theoretical cosmology by English physicist Stephen Hawking. It was first published in 1988. Hawking wrote the book for readers who had no prior knowledge of physics.In A Brief History of Time, Hawking writes in non-technical terms about the structure, origin, development and eventual fate of the Universe, which is the object of study of astronomy and modern physics. He talks about basic concepts like space and time, basic building blocks that make up the Universe (such as quarks) and the fundamental forces that govern it (such as gravity). He writes about cosmological phenomena such as the Big Bang and black holes. He discusses two major theories, general relativity and quantum mechanics, that modern scientists use to describe the Universe. Finally, he talks about the search for a unifying theory that describes everything in the Universe in a coherent manner.The book became a bestseller and sold more than 25 million copies.[1]
PublicationEarly in 1983, Hawking first approached Simon Mitton, the editor in charge of astronomy books at Cambridge University Press, with his ideas for a popular book on cosmology. Mitton was doubtful about all the equations in the draft manuscript, which he felt would put off the buyers in airport bookshops that Hawking wished to reach. With some difficulty, he persuaded Hawking to drop all but one equation.[2] The author himself notes in the book\'s acknowledgements that he was warned that for every equation in the book, the readership would be halved, hence it includes only a single equation: E = m c 2 {\\displaystyle E=mc^{2}}. The book does employ a number of complex models, diagrams, and other illustrations to detail some of the concepts that it explores.
Contents
This section may be too long and excessively detailed. Please consider summarizing the material. (January 2022)In A Brief History of Time, Stephen Hawking explains a range of subjects in cosmology, including the Big Bang, black holes and light cones, to the non-specialist reader. His main goal is to give an overview of the subject, but he also attempts to explain some complex mathematics. In the 1996 edition of the book and subsequent editions, Hawking discusses the possibility of time travel and wormholes and explores the possibility of having a Universe without a quantum singularity at the beginning of time. The 2017 edition of the book contained twelve chapters, whose contents are summarized below.
Chapter 1: Our Picture of the Universe
Ptolemy\'s Earth-centric model about the location of the planets, stars, and SunIn the first chapter, Hawking discusses the history of astronomical studies, particularly ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle\'s conclusions about spherical Earth and a circular geocentric model of the Universe, later elaborated upon by the second-century Greek astronomer Ptolemy. Hawking then depicts the rejection of the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic model and the gradual development of the currently accepted heliocentric model of the Solar System in the 16th, 17th, and 18th centuries, first proposed by the Polish priest Nicholas Copernicus in 1514, validated a century later by Italian scientist Galileo Galilei and German scientist Johannes Kepler (who proposed an elliptical orbit model instead of a circular one), and further supported mathematically by English scientist Isaac Newton in his 1687 book on gravity, Principia Mathematica.In this chapter, Hawking also covers how the topic of the origin of the Universe and time was studied and debated over the centuries: the perennial existence of the Universe hypothesised by Aristotle and other early philosophers was opposed by St. Augustine and other theologians\' belief in its creation at a specific time in the past, where time is a concept that was born with the creation of the Universe. In the modern age, German philosopher Immanuel Kant argued again that time had no beginning. In 1929, American astronomer Edwin Hubble\'s discovery of the expanding Universe implied that between ten and twenty billion years ago, the entire Universe was contained in one singular extremely dense place. This discovery brought the concept of the beginning of the Universe within the province of science. Currently scientists use Albert Einstein\'s general theory of relativity and quantum mechanics to partially describe the workings of the Universe, while still looking for a complete Grand Unified Theory that would describe everything in the Universe.
Chapter 2: Space and TimeIn this chapter, Hawking describes the development of scientific thought regarding the nature of space and time. He first describes the Aristotelian idea that the naturally preferred state of a body is to be at rest, and which can only be moved by force, implying that heavier objects will fall faster. However, Italian scientist Galileo Galilei experimentally proved Aristotle\'s theory wrong with by observing the motion of objects of different weights and concluding that all objects would fall at the same rate. This eventually led to English scientist Isaac Newton\'s laws of motion and gravity. However, Newton\'s laws implied that there is no such thing as absolute state of rest or absolute space as believed by Aristotle: whether an object is \'at rest\' or \'in motion\' depends on the inertial frame of reference of the observer.Hawking then describes Aristotle and Newton\'s belief in absolute time, i.e. time can be measured accurately regardless of the state of motion of the observer. However, Hawking writes that this commonsense notion does not work at or near the speed of light. He mentions Danish scientist Ole Rømer\'s discovery that light travels at a very high but finite speed through his observations of Jupiter and one of its moons Io as well as British scientist James Clerk Maxwell\'s equations on electromagnetism which showed that light travels in waves moving at a fixed speed. Since the notion of absolute rest was abandoned in Newtonian mechanics, Maxwell and many other physicists argued that light must travel through a hypothetical fluid called aether, its speed being relative to that of aether. This was later disproved by the Michelson–Morley experiment, showing that the speed of light always remains constant regardless of the motion of the observer. Einstein and Henri Poincaré later argued that there is no need for aether to explain the motion of light, assuming that there is no absolute time. The special theory of relativity is based on this, arguing that light travels with a finite speed no matter what the speed of the observer is.Mass and energy are related by the famous equation E = m c 2 {\\displaystyle E=mc^{2}}, which explains that an infinite amount of energy is needed for any object with mass to travel at the speed of light(3×10⁸m/s). A new way of defining a metre using speed of light was developed. \"Events\" can also be described by using light cones, a spacetime graphical representation that restricts what events are allowed and what are not based on the past and the future light cones. A 4-dimensional spacetime is also described, in which \'space\' and \'time\' are intrinsically linked. The motion of an object through space inevitably impacts the way in which it experiences time.Einstein\'s general theory of relativity explains how the path of a ray of light is affected by \'gravity\', which according to Einstein is an illusion caused by the warping of spacetime, in contrast to Newton\'s view which described gravity as a force which matter exerts on other matter. In spacetime curvature, light always travels in a straight path in the 4-dimensional \"spacetime\", but may appear to curve in 3-dimensional space due to gravitational effects. These straight-line paths are geodesics. The twin paradox, a thought experiment in special relativity involving identical twins, considers that twins can age differently if they move at different speeds relative to each other, or even if they lived in different locations with unequal spacetime curvature. Special relativity is based upon arenas of space and time where events take place, whereas general relativity is dynamic where force could change spacetime curvature and which gives rise to a dynamic, expanding Universe. Hawking and Roger Penrose worked upon this and later proved using general relativity that if the Universe had a beginning a finite time ago in the past, then it also might end at a finite time from now into the future.
Chapter 3: The Expanding Universe
The expansion of the universe since the Big BangIn this chapter, Hawking first describes how physicists and astronomers calculated the relative distance of stars from the Earth. In the 18th century, Sir William Herschel confirmed the positions and distances of many stars in the night sky. In 1924, Edwin Hubble discovered a method to measure the distance using the brightness of Cepheid variable stars as viewed from Earth. The luminosity, brightness, and distance of these stars are related by a simple mathematical formula. Using all these, he calculated distances of nine different galaxies. We live in a fairly typical spiral galaxy, containing vast numbers of stars.The stars are very far away from us, so we can only observe their one characteristic feature, their light. When this light is passed through a prism, it gives rise to a spectrum. Every star has its own spectrum, and since each element has its own unique spectra, we can measure a star\'s light spectra to know its chemical composition. We use thermal spectra of the stars to know their temperature. In 1920, when scientists were examining spectra of different galaxies, they found that some of the characteristic lines of the star spectrum were shifted towards the red end of the spectrum. The implications of this phenomenon were given by the Doppler effect, and it was clear that many galaxies were moving away from us.It was assumed that, since some galaxies are red shifted, some galaxies would also be blue shifted. However, redshifted galaxies far outnumbered blueshifted galaxies. Hubble found that the amount of redshift is directly proportional to relative distance. From this, he determined that the Universe is expanding and had a beginning. Despite this, the concept of a static Universe persisted into the 20th century. Einstein was so sure of a static Universe that he developed the \'cosmological constant\' and introduced \'anti-gravity\' forces to allow a universe of infinite age to exist. Moreover, many astronomers also tried to avoid the implications of general relativity and stuck with their static Universe, with one especially notable exception, the Russian physicist Alexander Friedmann.Friedmann made two very simple assumptions: the Universe is identical wherever we are, i.e. homogeneity, and that it is identical in every direction that we look in, i.e. isotropy. His results showed that the Universe is non-static. His assumptions were later proved when two physicists at Bell Labs, Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, found unexpected microwave radiation not only from the one particular part of the sky but from everywhere and by nearly the same amount. Thus Friedmann\'s first assumption was proved to be true.At around the same time, Robert H. Dicke and Jim Peebles were also working on microwave radiation. They argued that they should be able to see the glow of the early Universe as background microwave radiation. Wilson and Penzias had already done this, so they were awarded with the Nobel Prize in 1978. In addition, our place in the Universe is not exceptional, so we should see the Universe as approximately the same from any other part of space, which supports Friedmann\'s second assumption. His work remained largely unknown until similar models were made by Howard Robertson and Arthur Walker.Friedmann\'s model gave rise to three different types of models for the evolution of the Universe. First, the Universe would expand for a given amount of time, and if the expansion rate is less than the density of the Universe (leading to gravitational attraction), it would ultimately lead to the collapse of the Universe at a later stage. Secondly, the Universe would expand, and at some time, if the expansion rate and the density of the Universe became equal, it would expand slowly and stop, leading to a somewhat static Universe. Thirdly, the Universe would continue to expand forever, if the density of the Universe is less than the critical amount required to balance the expansion rate of the Universe.The first model depicts the space of the Universe to be curved inwards. In the second model, the space would lead to a flat structure, and the third model results in negative \'saddle shaped\' curvature. Even if we calculate, the current expansion rate is more than the critical density of the Universe including the dark matter and all the stellar masses. The first model included the beginning of the Universe as a Big Bang from a space of infinite density and zero volume known as \'singularity\', a point where the general theory of relativity (Friedmann\'s solutions are based in it) also breaks down.This concept of the beginning of time (proposed by the Belgian Catholic priest Georges Lemaître) seemed originally to be motivated by religious beliefs, because of its support of the biblical claim of the universe having a beginning in time instead of being eternal.[3] So a new theory was introduced, the \"steady state theory\" by Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold, and Fred Hoyle, to compete with the Big Bang theory. Its predictions also matched with the current Universe structure. But the fact that radio wave sources near us are far fewer than from the distant Universe, and there were numerous more radio sources than at present, resulted in the failure of this theory and universal acceptance of the Big Bang Theory. Evgeny Lifshitz and Isaak Markovich Khalatnikov also tried to find an alternative to the Big Bang theory but also failed.Roger Penrose used light cones and general relativity to prove that a collapsing star could result in a region of zero size and infinite density and curvature called a Black Hole. Hawking and Penrose proved together that the Universe should have arisen from a singularity, which Hawking himself disproved once quantum effects are taken into account.
Chapter 4: The Uncertainty PrincipleIn this chapter, Hawking first discusses nineteenth-century French mathematician Laplace\'s strong belief in scientific determinism, where scientific laws will eventually be able to accurately predict the future of the Universe. Then he discusses the theory of infinite radiation of stars according to the calculations of British scientists Lord Rayleigh and James Jeans, which was later revised in 1900 by German scientist Max Planck who suggested that energy must radiate in small, finite packets called quanta.Hawking then discusses the uncertainty principle formulated by German scientist Werner Heisenberg, according to which the speed and the position of a particle cannot be precisely known due to Planck\'s quantum hypothesis: increasing the accuracy in measuring its speed will decrease the certainty of its position and vice versa. This disproved Laplace\'s idea of a completely deterministic theory of the universe. Hawking then describes the eventual development of quantum mechanics by Heisenberg, Austrian physicist Erwin Schroedinger and English physicist Paul Dirac in the 1920s, a theory which introduced an irreducible element of unpredictability into science, and despite German scientist Albert Einstein\'s strong objections, it has been proven to be very successful in describing the universe except for gravity and large-scale structures.
A representation of a light waveHawking then discusses how Heisenberg\'s uncertainty principle implies the wave–particle duality behaviour of light (and particles in general).
Light interference causes many colours to appear.He then describes the phenomenon of interference where multiple light waves interfere with each other to give rise to a single light wave with properties different from those of the component waves, as well as the interference within particles, exemplified by the two-slit experiment. Hawking writes how interference refined our understanding of the structure of atoms, the building blocks of matter. While Danish scientist Niels Bohr\'s theory only partially solved the problem of collapsing electrons, quantum mechanics completely resolved it. According to Hawking, American scientist Richard Feynman\'s sum over histories is a nice way of visualizing the wave-particle duality. Finally, Hawking mentions that Einstein\'s general theory of relativity is a classical, non-quantum theory which ignores the uncertainty principle and that it has to be reconciled with quantum theory in situations where gravity is very strong, such as black holes and the Big Bang.
Chapter 5: Elementary Particles and Forces of NatureIn this chapter, Hawking traces the history of investigation about the nature of matter: Aristotle\'s four elements, Democritus\'s notion of indivisible atoms, John Dalton\'s ideas about atoms combining to form molecules, J. J. Thomson\'s discovery of electrons inside atoms, Ernest Rutherford\'s discovery of atomic nucleus and protons, James Chadwick\'s discovery of neutrons and finally Murray Gell-Mann\'s work on even smaller quarks which make up protons and neutrons. Hawking then discusses the six different \"flavors\" (up, down, strange, charm, bottom, and top) and three different \"colors\" of quarks (red, green, and blue). Later in the chapter he discusses anti-quarks, which are outnumbered by quarks due to the expansion and cooling of the Universe.
A particle of spin 1 needs to be turned around all the way to look the same again, like this arrow.Hawking then discusses the spin property of particles, which determines what a particle looks like from different directions. Hawking then discusses two groups of particles in the Universe based on their spin: fermions and bosons. Fermions, with a spin of 1/2, follow the Pauli exclusion principle, which states that they cannot share the same quantum state (for example, two \"spin up\" protons cannot occupy the same location in space). Without this rule, complex structures could not exist.
A proton consists of three quarks, which are different colours due to colour confinement.Bosons or the force-carrying particles, with a spin of 0, 1, or 2, do not follow the exclusion principle. Hawking then gives the examples of virtual gravitons and virtual photons. Virtual gravitons, with a spin of 2, carry the force of gravity. Virtual photons, with a spin of 1, carry the electromagnetic force. Hawking then discusses the weak nuclear force (responsible for radioactivity and affecting mainly fermions) and the strong nuclear force carried by the particle gluon, which binds quarks together into hadrons, usually neutrons and protons, and also binds neutrons and protons together into atomic nuclei. Hawking then writes about the phenomenon called color confinement which prevents the discovery of quarks and gluons on their own (except at extremely high temperature) as they remain confined within hadrons.Hawking writes that at extremely high temperature, the electromagnetic force and weak nuclear force behave as a single electroweak force, giving rise to the speculation that at even higher temperatures, the electroweak force and strong nuclear force would also behave as a single force. Theories which attempt to describe the behaviour of this \"combined\" force are called Grand Unified Theories, which may help us explain many of the mysteries of physics that scientists have yet to solve.
Chapter 6: Black Holes
A black hole, showing how it distorts its background image through gravitational lensingIn this chapter, Hawking discusses black holes, regions of spacetime where extremely strong gravity prevents everything, including light, from escaping from within them. Hawking describes how most black holes are formed during the collapse of massive stars (at least 25 times heavier than the Sun) approaching end of life. He writes about the event horizon, the black hole\'s boundary from which no particle can escape to the rest of spacetime. Hawking then discusses non-rotating black holes with spherical symmetry and rotating ones with axisymmetry. Hawking then describes how astronomers discover a black hole not directly, but indirectly, by observing with special telescopes the powerful X-rays emitted when it consumes a star. Hawking ends the chapter by mentioning his famous bet made in 1974 with American physicist Kip Thorne in which Hawking argued that black holes did not exist. Hawking lost the bet as new evidence proved that Cygnus X-1 was indeed a black hole.
Chapter 7: Black Holes Ain\'t So BlackThis chapter discusses an aspect of black hole behaviors\' that Stephen Hawking discovered in the 1970s. According to earlier theories, black holes can only become larger, and never smaller, because nothing which enters a black hole can come out. However, in 1974, Hawking published a new theory which argued that black holes can \"leak\" radiation. He imagined what might happen if a pair of virtual particles appeared near the edge of a black hole. Virtual particles briefly \'borrow\' energy from spacetime itself, then annihilate with each other, returning the borrowed energy and ceasing to exist. However, at the edge of a black hole, one virtual particle might be trapped by the black hole while the other escapes. Because of the second law of thermodynamics, particles are \'forofferden\' from taking energy from the vacuum. Thus, the particle takes energy from the black hole instead of from the vacuum, and escape from the black hole as Hawking radiation.According to Hawking, black holes must very slowly shrink over time and eventually \"evaporate\" because of this radiation, rather than continue existing forever as scientists had previously believed.
Chapter 8: The Origin and Fate of the Universe
The Big Bang and the evolution of the UniverseThe beginning and the end of the universe are discussed in this chapter.Most scientists agree that the Universe began in an expansion called the \"Big Bang\". At the start of the Big Bang, the Universe had an extremely high temperature, which prevented the formation of complex structures like stars, or even very simple ones like atoms. During the Big Bang, a phenomenon called \"inflation\" took place, in which the Universe briefly expanded (\"inflated\") to a much larger size. Inflation explains some characteristics of the Universe that had previously greatly confused researchers. After inflation, the universe continued to expand at a slower pace. It became much colder, eventually allowing for the formation of such structures.Hawking also discusses how the Universe might have appeared differently if it grew in size slower or faster than it actually has. For example, if the Universe expanded too slowly, it would collapse, and there would not be enough time for life to form. If the Universe expanded too quickly, it would have become almost empty.Hawking ultimately proposes the conclusion that the universe might be finite, but boundless. In other words, it may have no beginning nor ending in time, but merely exist with a finite amount of matter and energy.The concept of quantum gravity is also discussed in this chapter.
Chapter 9: The Arrow of TimeIn this chapter Hawking talks about why \"real time\", as Hawking calls time as humans observe and experience it (in contrast to \"imaginary time\", which Hawking claims is inherent to the laws of science) seems to have a certain direction, notably from the past towards the future. Hawking then discusses three \"arrows of time\" which, in his view, give time this property. Hawking\'s first arrow of time is the thermodynamic arrow of time: the direction in which entropy (which Hawking calls disorder) increases. According to Hawking, this is why we never see the broken pieces of a cup gather themselves together to form a whole cup. Hawking\'s second arrow is the psychological arrow of time, whereby our subjective sense of time seems to flow in one direction, which is why we remember the past and not the future. Hawking claims that our brain measures time in a way where disorder increases in the direction of time – we never observe it working in the opposite direction. In other words, he claims that the psychological arrow of time is intertwined with the thermodynamic arrow of time. Hawking\'s third and final arrow of time is the cosmological arrow of time: the direction of time in which the Universe is expanding rather than contracting. According to Hawking, during a contraction phase of the universe, the thermodynamic and cosmological arrows of time would not agree.Hawking then claims that the \"no boundary proposal\" for the universe implies that the universe will expand for some time before contracting back again. He goes on to argue that the no boundary proposal is what drives entropy and that it predicts the existence of a well-defined thermodynamic arrow of time if and only if the universe is expanding, as it implies that the universe must have started in a smooth and ordered state that must grow toward disorder as time advances. He argues that, because of the no boundary proposal, a contracting universe would not have a well-defined thermodynamic arrow and therefore only a Universe which is in an expansion phase can support intelligent life. Using the weak anthropic principle, Hawking goes on to argue that the thermodynamic arrow must agree with the cosmological arrow in order for either to be observed by intelligent life. This, in Hawking\'s view, is why humans experience these three arrows of time going in the same direction.
Chapter 10: Wormholes and Time TravelIn this chapter, Hawking discusses whether it is possible to time travel, i.e., travel into the future or the past. He shows how physicists have attempted to devise possible methods by humans with advanced technology may be able to travel faster than the speed of light, or travel backwards in time, and these concepts have become mainstays of science fiction. Einstein–Rosen bridges were proposed early in the history of general relativity research. These \"wormholes\" would appear identical to black holes from the outside, but matter which entered would be relocated to a different location in spacetime, potentially in a distant region of space, or even backwards in time. However, later research demonstrated that such a wormhole, even if possible for it to form in the first place, would not allow any material to pass through before turning back into a regular black hole. The only way that a wormhole could theoretically remain open, and thus allow faster-than-light travel or time travel, would require the existence of exotic matter with negative energy density, which violates the energy conditions of general relativity. As such, almost all physicists agree that faster-than-light travel and travel backwards in time are not possible.Hawking also describes his own \"chronology protection conjecture\", which provides a more formal explanation for why faster-than-light and backwards time travel are almost certainly impossible.
Chapter 11: The Unification of Physics
A wavy open segment and closed loop of string.
The fundamental objects of string theory are open and closed strings.Quantum field theory (QFT) and general relativity (GR) describe the physics of the Universe with astounding accuracy within their own domains of applicability. However, these two theories contradict each other. For example, the uncertainty principle of QFT is incompatible with GR. This contradiction, and the fact that QFT and GR do not fully explain observed phenomena, have led physicists to search for a theory of \"quantum gravity\" that is both internally consistent and explains observed phenomena just as well as or better than existing theories do.Hawking is cautiously optimistic that such a unified theory of the Universe may be found soon, in spite of significant challenges. At the time the book was written, \"superstring theory\" had emerged as the most popular theory of quantum gravity, but this theory and related string theories were still incomplete and had yet to be proven in spite of significant effort (this remains the case as of 2021). String theory proposes that particles behave like one-dimensional \"strings\", rather than as dimensionless particles as they do in QFT. These strings \"vibrate\" in many dimensions. Instead of 3 dimensions as in QFT or 4 dimensions as in GR, superstring theory requires a total of 10 dimensions. The nature of the six \"hyperspace\" dimensions required by superstring theory are difficult if not impossible to study, leaving countless theoretical string theory landscapes which each describe a universe with different properties. Without a means to narrow the scope of possibilities, it is likely impossible to find practical applications for string theory.Alternative theories of quantum gravity, such as loop quantum gravity, similarly suffer from a lack of evidence and difficulty to study.Hawking thus proposes three possibilities: 1) there exists a complete unified theory that we will eventually find; 2) the overlapping characteristics of different landscapes will allow us to gradually explain physics more accurately with time and 3) there is no ultimate theory. The third possibility has been sidestepped by acknowledging the limits set by the uncertainty principle. The second possibility describes what has been happening in physical sciences so far, with increasingly accurate partial theories.Hawking believes that such refinement has a limit and that by studying the very early stages of the Universe in a laboratory setting, a complete theory of Quantum Gravity will be found in the 21st century allowing physicists to solve many of the currently unsolved problems in physics.
ConclusionIn this final chapter, Hawking summarises the efforts made by humans through their history to understand the Universe and their place in it: starting from the belief in anthropomorphic spirits controlling nature, followed by the recognition of regular patterns in nature, and finally with the scientific advancement in recent centuries, the inner workings of the universe have become far better understood. He recalls the suggestion of the nineteenth-century French mathematician Laplace that the Universe\'s structure and evolution could eventually be precisely explained by a set of laws whose origin is left in God\'s domain. However, Hawking states that the uncertainty principle introduced by the quantum theory in the twentieth century has set limits to the predictive accuracy of future laws to be discovered.Hawking comments that historically, the study of cosmology (the study of the origin, evolution, and end of Earth and the Universe as a whole) has been primarily motivated by a search for philosophical and religious insights, for instance, to better understand the nature of God, or even whether God exists at all. However, for Hawking, most scientists today who work on these theories approach them with mathematical calculation and empirical observation, rather than asking such philosophical questions. In his mind, the increasingly technical nature of these theories have caused modern cosmology to become increasingly divorced from philosophical discussion. Hawking nonetheless expresses hope that one day everybody would talk about these theories in order to understand the true origin and nature of the Universe, and accomplish \"the ultimate triumph of human reasoning\".
Editions 1988: The first edition included an introduction by Carl Sagan that tells the following story: Sagan was in London for a scientific conference in 1974, and between sessions he wandered into a different room, where a larger meeting was taking place. \"I realized that I was watching an ancient ceremony: the investiture of new fellows into the Royal Society, one of the most ancient scholarly organizations on the planet. In the front row, a young man in a wheelchair was, very slowly, signing his name in a book that bore on its earliest pages the signature of Isaac Newton ... Stephen Hawking was a legend even then.\" In his introduction, Sagan goes on to add that Hawking is the \"worthy successor\" to Newton and Paul Dirac, both former Lucasian Professors of Mathematics.[4]The introduction was removed after the first edition, as it was copyrighted by Sagan, rather than by Hawking or the publisher, and the publisher did not have the right to reprint it in perpetuity. Hawking wrote his own introduction for later editions. 1994, A brief history of time – An interactive adventure. A CD-Rom with interactive video material created by S. W. Hawking, Jim Mervis, and Robit Hairman (available for Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows ME, and Windows XP).[5]
1996, Illustrated, updated and expanded edition: This hardcover edition contained full-color illustrations and photographs to help further explain the text, as well as the addition of topics that were not included in the original book.
1998, Tenth-anniversary edition: It features the same text as the one published in 1996, but was also released in paperback and has only a few diagrams included. ISBN 0553109537
2005, A Briefer History of Time: a collaboration with Leonard Mlodinow of an abridged version of the original book. It was updated again to address new issues that had arisen due to further scientific development. ISBN 0-553-80436-7Film
Main article: A Brief History of Time (film)In 1991, Errol Morris directed a documentary film about Hawking, but although they share a title, the film is a biographical study of Hawking, and not a filmed version of the book.
Apps
This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (July 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)\"Stephen Hawking\'s Pocket Universe: A Brief History of Time Revisited\" is based on the book. The app was developed by Preloaded for Transworld publishers, a division of the Penguin Random House group.The app was produced in 2016. It was designed by Ben Courtney and produced by Jemma Harris and is available on iOS only.
OperaThe Metropolitan Opera commissioned an opera to premiere in the 2015–2016 season based on Hawking\'s book. It was to be composed by Osvaldo Golijov with a libretto by Alberto Manguel in a production by Robert Lepage.[6] The planned opera was changed to be about a different subject and eventually canceled completely.[7]
See also Turtles all the way down – a jocular expression of the infinite regress problem in cosmology that appears in Hawking\'s book
General relativity § Further reading
List of textbooks on classical mechanics and quantum mechanics
List of textbooks in thermodynamics and statistical mechanics
Hawking Index – a mock mathematical measurement of how far people will read a book before giving up, named in reference to Hawking\'s book.ReferencesMcKie, Robin (August 2007). \"A brief history of Stephen Hawking\". Cosmos. Retrieved 13 June 2020.
Gribbin, John; White, Michael (1992). Stephen Hawking: a life in science. Viking Press. ISBN 978-0670840137.
As Stephen Hawking puts it in his book: \"Many people do not like the idea that time has a beginning, probably because it smacks of divine intervention. (The Catholic Church, on the other hand, seized on the big bang model and in 1951 officially pronounced it to be in accordance with the Bible.)\"
Hawking, Stephen (1988). A Brief History of Time. Bantam Books. ISBN 978-0-553-38016-3.
A brief history of time – An interactive adventure
\"Un nouveau Robert Lepage au MET\". Le Devoir (in French). 15 December 2010. Retrieved 13 June 2020. Cooper, Michael (29 November 2016). \"Osvaldo Golijov\'s New Opera for the Met is Called Off\". The New York Times.External links
Library resources about
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Physics Hawking radiation Black hole thermodynamics Micro black hole Chronology protection conjecture Gibbons–Hawking ansatz Gibbons–Hawking effect Gibbons–Hawking space Gibbons–Hawking–York boundary term Hartle–Hawking state Penrose–Hawking singularity theorems Hawking energyBooks
Science The Large Scale Structure of Space–Time (1973) A Brief History of Time (1988) Black Holes and Baby Universes and Other Essays (1993) The Nature of Space and Time (1996) The Universe in a Nutshell (2001) On the Shoulders of Giants (2002) A Briefer History of Time (2005) God Created the Integers (2005) The Grand Design (2010) The Dreams That Stuff Is Made Of (2011) Brief Answers to the Big Questions (2018) On the Origin of Time (2023, posthume message)Fiction George\'s Secret Key to the Universe (2007) George\'s Cosmic Treasure Hunt (2009) George and the Big Bang (2011) George and the Unbreakable Code (2014) George and the Blue Moon (2016) Unlocking the Universe (2020)Memoirs My Brief History (2013)Films A Brief History of Time (1991) Hawking (2004) Hawking (2013) The Theory of Everything (2014)Television God, the Universe and Everything Else (1988) Stephen Hawking\'s Universe (1997 documentary) Stephen Hawking: Master of the Universe (2008 documentary) Genius of Britain (2010 series) Into the Universe with Stephen Hawking (2010 series) Brave New World with Stephen Hawking (2011 series) Genius by Stephen Hawking (2016 series)Family Jane Wilde Hawking (first wife) Lucy Hawking (daughter)Other In popular culture Namesakes Black hole information paradox Thorne–Hawking–Preskill betCategories: 1988 non-fiction booksBooks by Stephen HawkingEnglish-language booksPopular physics booksCosmology booksBantam Books historyTools
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
This article is about higher level of intellectual ability possessed by certain individuals. For mythological spirit, see Genius (mythology). For other uses, see Genius (disambiguation). For the taxonomic level, see genus.
Genius is a characteristic of original and exceptional insight in the performance of some art or endeavor that surpasses expectations, sets new standards for the future, establishes better methods of operation, or remains outside the capabilities of competitors.[1] Genius is associated with intellectual ability and creative productivity. The term genius can also be used to refer to people characterised by genius, and/or to polymaths who excel across many subjects.[2]There is no scientifically precise definition of genius.[3] When used to refer to the characteristic, genius is associated with talent, but several authors such as Cesare Lombroso and Arthur Schopenhauer systematically distinguish these terms.[4] Walter Isaacson, biographer of many well-known geniuses, explains that although high intelligence may be a prerequisite, the most common trait that actually defines a genius may be the extraordinary ability to apply creativity and imaginative thinking to almost any situation.[2]Etymology
Main article: Genius (mythology)Srinivasa Ramanujan, a mathematician who is widely regarded as a genius. He made substantial contributions to mathematics despite little formal training.[5]Confucius, one of the most influential thinkers of the ancient world[6][7][8][9][10][11] and the most famous Chinese philosopher,[12] is often considered a genius.[13][14][15][16][17]
In ancient Rome, the genius (plural in Latin genii) was the guiding spirit or tutelary deity of a person, family (gens), or place (genius loci).[18] Connotations of the word in Latin have a lineal relationship with the Greek word daemon [19][20][21] in classical and medieval texts, and also share a relationship with the Arabic word al-ghul (as in the star Algol; its literal meaning being \"the Demon\").[22]The noun is related to the Latin verbs \"gignere\" (to beget, to give birth to) and \"generare\" (to beget, to generate, to procreate), and derives directly from the Indo-European stem thereof: \"ǵenh\" (to produce, to beget, to give birth). Because the achievements of exceptional individuals seemed to indicate the presence of a particularly powerful genius, by the time of Augustus, the word began to acquire its secondary meaning of \"inspiration, talent\".[23] The term genius acquired its modern sense in the eighteenth century, and is a conflation of two Latin terms: genius, as above, and Ingenium, a related noun referring to our innate dispositions, talents, and inborn nature.[24] Beginning to blend the concepts of the divine and the talented, the Encyclopédie article on genius (génie) describes such a person as \"he whose soul is more expansive and struck by the feelings of all others; interested by all that is in nature never to receive an idea unless it evokes a feeling; everything excites him and on which nothing is lost.\"[25]Historical development
GaltonMiguel de Cervantes, novelist who is acknowledged as a literary genius
The assessment of intelligence was initiated by Francis Galton (1822–1911) and James McKeen Cattell. They had advocated the analysis of reaction time and sensory acuity as measures of \"neurophysiological efficiency\" and the analysis of sensory acuity as a measure of intelligence.[26]Galton is regarded as the founder of psychometry. He studied the work of his older half-cousin Charles Darwin about biological evolution. Hypothesizing that eminence is inherited from ancestors, Galton did a study of families of eminent people in Britain, publishing it in 1869 as Hereditary Genius.[27] Galton\'s ideas were elaborated from the work of two early 19th-century pioneers in statistics: Carl Friedrich Gauss and Adolphe Quetelet. Gauss discovered the normal distribution (bell-shaped curve): given a large number of measurements of the same variable under the same conditions, they vary at random from a most frequent value, the \"average\", to two least frequent values at maximum differences greater and lower than the most frequent value. Quetelet discovered that the bell-shaped curve applied to social statistics gathered by the French government in the course of its normal processes on large numbers of people passing through the courts and the military. His initial work in criminology led him to observe \"the greater the number of individuals observed the more do peculiarities become effaced...\". This ideal from which the peculiarities were effaced became \"the average man\".[28]Galton was inspired by Quetelet to define the average man as \"an entire normal scheme\"; that is, if one combines the normal curves of every measurable human characteristic, one will, in theory, perceive a syndrome straddled by \"the average man\" and flanked by persons that are different. In contrast to Quetelet, Galton\'s average man was not statistical but was theoretical only. There was no measure of general averageness, only a large number of very specific averages. Setting out to discover a general measure of the average, Galton looked at educational statistics and found bell-curves in test results of all sorts; initially in mathematics grades for the final honors examination and in entrance examination scores for Sandhurst.Galton\'s method in Hereditary Genius was to count and assess the eminent relatives of eminent men. He found that the number of eminent relatives was greater with a closer degree of kinship. This work is considered the first example of historiometry, an analytical study of historical human progress. The work is controversial and has been criticized for several reasons. Galton then departed from Gauss in a way that became crucial to the history of the 20th century AD. The bell-shaped curve was not random, he concluded. The differences between the average and the upper end were due to a non-random factor, \"natural ability\", which he defined as \"those qualities of intellect and disposition, which urge and qualify men to perform acts that lead to reputation…a nature which, when left to itself, will, urged by an inherent stimulus, climb the path that leads to eminence.\"[29] The apparent randomness of the scores was due to the randomness of this natural ability in the population as a whole, in theory.Criticisms include that Galton\'s study fails to account for the impact of social status and the associated availability of resources in the form of economic inheritance, meaning that inherited \"eminence\" or \"genius\" can be gained through the enriched environment provided by wealthy families. Galton went on to develop the field of eugenics.[30] Galton attempted to control for economic inheritance by comparing the adopted nephews of popes, who would have the advantage of wealth without being as closely related to popes as sons are to their fathers, to the biological children of eminent individuals.[27]Psychology
See also: Creativity and mental illnessStanley Kubrick, deemed a filmmaking geniusMarie Curie, physicist and chemist cited as a genius
Genius is expressed in a variety of forms (e.g., mathematical, literary, musical performance). Persons with genius tend to have strong intuitions about their domains, and they build on these insights with tremendous energy.[citation needed] Carl Rogers, a founder of the Humanistic Approach to Psychology, expands on the idea of a genius trusting his or her intuition in a given field, writing: \"El Greco, for example, must have realized as he looked at some of his early work, that \'good artists do not paint like that.\' But somehow he trusted his own experiencing of life, the process of himself, sufficiently that he could go on expressing his own unique perceptions. It was as though he could say, \'Good artists don\'t paint like this, but I paint like this.\' Or to move to another field, Ernest Hemingway was surely aware that \'good writers do not write like this.\' But fortunately he moved toward being Hemingway, being himself, rather than toward someone else\'s conception of a good writer.\"[31]Several people commonly regarded as geniuses have been or were diagnosed with mental disorders, for example Vincent van Gogh,[32] Virginia Woolf,[33] John Forbes Nash Jr.,[34] and Ernest Hemingway.[35]It has been suggested that there exists a connection between mental illness, in particular schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, and genius.[36] Individuals with bipolar disorder and schizotypal personality disorder, the latter of which being more common amongst relatives of schizophrenics, tend to show elevated creativity.[37]In a 2010 study[38] done in the Karolinska Institute it was observed that highly creative individuals and schizophrenics have a lower density of thalamic dopamine D2 receptors. One of the investigators explained that \"Fewer D2 receptors in the thalamus probably means a lower degree of signal filtering, and thus a higher flow of information from the thalamus.\" This could be a possible mechanism behind the ability of healthy highly creative people to see numerous uncommon connections in a problem-solving situation and the bizarre associations found in the schizophrenics.[38]IQ and geniusAlbert Einstein, theoretical physicist who is considered a genius
Galton was a pioneer in investigating both eminent human achievement and mental testing. In his book Hereditary Genius, written before the development of IQ testing, he proposed that hereditary influences on eminent achievement are strong, and that eminence is rare in the general population. Lewis Terman chose \"\'near\' genius or genius\" as the classification label for the highest classification on his 1916 version of the Stanford–Binet test.[39] By 1926, Terman began publishing about a longitudinal study of California schoolchildren who were referred for IQ testing by their schoolteachers, called Genetic Studies of Genius, which he conducted for the rest of his life. Catherine M. Cox, a colleague of Terman\'s, wrote a whole book, The Early Mental Traits of 300 Geniuses,[1] published as volume 2 of The Genetic Studies of Genius book series, in which she analyzed biographical data about historic geniuses. Although her estimates of childhood IQ scores of historical figures who never took IQ tests have been criticized on methodological grounds,[40][41][42] Cox\'s study was thorough in finding out what else matters besides IQ in becoming a genius.[43] By the 1937 second revision of the Stanford–Binet test, Terman no longer used the term \"genius\" as an IQ classification, nor has any subsequent IQ test.[44][45] In 1939, David Wechsler specifically commented that \"we are rather hesitant about calling a person a genius on the basis of a single intelligence test score\".[46]The Terman longitudinal study in California eventually provided historical evidence regarding how genius is related to IQ scores.[47] Many California pupils were recommended for the study by schoolteachers. Two pupils who were tested but rejected for inclusion in the study (because their IQ scores were too low) grew up to be Nobel Prize winners in physics, William Shockley,[48][49] and Luis Walter Alvarez.[50][51] Based on the historical findings of the Terman study and on biographical examples such as Richard Feynman, who had a self-reported IQ of 125 and went on to win the Nobel Prize in physics and become widely known as a genius,[52][53] the current view of psychologists and other scholars of genius is that a minimum level of IQ (approximately 125) is necessary for genius but not sufficient, and must be combined with personality characteristics such as drive and persistence, plus the necessary opportunities for talent development.[54][55][56] For instance, in a chapter in an edited volume on achievement, IQ researcher Arthur Jensen proposed a multiplicative model of genius consisting of high ability, high productivity, and high creativity.[57] Jensen\'s model was motivated by the finding that eminent achievement is highly positively skewed, a finding known as Price\'s law, and related to Lotka\'s law.Some high IQ individuals join a High IQ society. The most famous and largest is Mensa International, but many other more selective organizations also exist, including Intertel, Triple Nine Society, Prometheus Society, and Mega Society.PhilosophyLeonardo da Vinci is widely acknowledged as having been a genius and a polymath.Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, considered a prodigy and musical genius
Various philosophers have proposed definitions of what genius is and what that implies in the context of their philosophical theories.In the philosophy of David Hume, the way society perceives genius is similar to the way society perceives the ignorant. Hume states that a person with the characteristics of a genius is looked at as a person disconnected from society, as well as a person who works remotely, at a distance, away from the rest of the world.On the other hand, the mere ignorant is still more despised; nor is any thing deemed a surer sign of an illiberal genius in an age and nation where the sciences flourish, than to be entirely destitute of all relish for those noble entertainments. The most perfect character is supposed to lie between those extremes; retaining an equal ability and taste for books, company, and business; preserving in conversation that discernment and delicacy which arise from polite letters; and in business, that probity and accuracy which are the natural result of a just philosophy.[58]In the philosophy of Immanuel Kant, genius is the ability to independently arrive at and understand concepts that would normally have to be taught by another person. For Kant, originality was the essential character of genius.[59] The artworks of the Kantian genius are also characterized by their exemplarity which is imitated by other artists and serve as a rule for other aesthetical judgements.[60] This genius is a talent for producing ideas which can be described as non-imitative. Kant\'s discussion of the characteristics of genius is largely contained within the Critique of Judgment and was well received by the Romantics of the early 19th century. In addition, much of Schopenhauer\'s theory of genius, particularly regarding talent and freedom from constraint, is directly derived from paragraphs of Part I of Kant\'s Critique of Judgment.[61]Genius is a talent for producing something for which no determinate rule can be given, not a predisposition consisting of a skill for something that can be learned by following some rule or other.— Immanuel Kant
In the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer, a genius is someone in whom intellect predominates over \"will\" much more than within the average person. In Schopenhauer\'s aesthetics, this predominance of the intellect over the will allows the genius to create artistic or academic works that are objects of pure, disinterested contemplation, the chief criterion of the aesthetic experience for Schopenhauer. Their remoteness from mundane concerns means that Schopenhauer\'s geniuses often display maladaptive traits in more mundane concerns; in Schopenhauer\'s words, they fall into the mire while gazing at the stars, an allusion to Plato\'s dialogue Theætetus, in which Socrates tells of Thales (the first philosopher) being ridiculed for falling in such circumstances. As he says in Volume 2 of The World as Will and Representation:Talent hits a target no one else can hit; Genius hits a target no one else can see.— Arthur Schopenhauer[4]
In the philosophy of Thomas Carlyle, genius is called (in Past and Present) \"the inspired gift of God\"; the \"Man of Genius\" possesses \"the presence of God Most High in a man\".[62] The actions of the \"Man of Genius\" can manifest this in various ways: in his \"transcendent capacity of taking trouble\" (often misquoted as \"an infinite capacity for taking pains\"),[63] in that he can \"recognise how every object has a divine beauty in it\" as a poet or painter does, or in that he has \"an original power of thinking\".[64] In accordance with his Great Man theory, Carlyle considered such individuals as Odin, William the Conqueror and Frederick the Great to be \"Men of Genius\".[65]In the philosophy of Bertrand Russell, genius entails that an individual possesses unique qualities and talents that make the genius especially valuable to the society in which he or she operates, once given the chance to contribute to society. Russell\'s philosophy further maintains, however, that it is possible for such geniuses to be crushed in their youth and lost forever when the environment around them is unsympathetic to their potential maladaptive traits. Russell rejected the notion he believed was popular during his lifetime that, \"genius will out\".[66]In his classic work The Limitations of Science,[67] J. W. N. Sullivan discussed a utilitarian philosophy on the retrospective classification of genius. Namely, scholarship that is so original that, were it not for that particular contributor, would not have emerged until much later (if ever) is characteristic of genius. Conversely, scholarship that was ripe for development, no matter how profound or prominent, is not necessarily indicative of genius.Literature and pop culture
Geniuses are variously portrayed in literature and film as both protagonists and antagonists, and may be the hero or villain of the story. In pop culture, the genius is often stereotypically depicted as either the wisecracking whiz or the tortured genius.[68]Throughout both literature and movies, the tortured genius character is often seen as an imperfect or tragic hero who wrestles with the burden of superior intelligence, arrogance, eccentricities, addiction, awkwardness, mental health issues, a lack of social skills, isolation, or other insecurities.[69][70] They regularly experience existential crises, struggling to overcome personal challenges to employ their special abilities for good or succumbing to their own tragic flaws and vices. This common motif repeated throughout fiction is notably present in the characters of Dr. Bruce Banner in the Hulk and Dr. Henry Jekyll in The Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde, among others.[71][72] Although not as extreme, other examples of literary and filmic characterizations of the tortured genius stereotype, to varying degrees, include: Sherlock Holmes, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart in Amadeus, Dr. John Nash in A Beautiful Mind, Leonardo da Vinci in Da Vinci\'s Demons, Dr. Gregory House in House, Will Hunting in Good Will Hunting, and Dr. Sheldon Cooper in The Big Bang Theory.One of the most famous genius-level rivalries to occur in literary fiction is between Sherlock Holmes and his nemesis Professor Moriarty; the latter character also identified as the modern archetype of an evil genius.[73]See also
Chess prodigy
Eccentricity (behavior)
Intellectual giftedness
Gifted education
List of Nobel laureates
MacArthur Fellows Program
Savant syndrome
References
Cox 1926
\"What Makes a Genius? The World\'s Greatest Minds Have One Thing in or in other words Scott j simpkin Common\". Time. Retrieved 2021-01-08.
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Schopenhauer, Arthur (1909) [1818]. The World as Will and Idea Volume 3. Translated by Haldane, R. B. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner & Co. p. 158.
\"Mathematical proof reveals magic of Ramanujan\'s genius\". New Scientist.
\"Genius of the Ancient World\". BBC.
Frank N. Magill (1998). The Ancient World: Dictionary of World Biography, Volume 1. Fitzroy Dearborn Readers. p. 299. That education regime remained the heart of learning in China until the early twentieh century. The flourishing of his pedagogical approach is a testimony to Confucius\' genius.
The Ancient World\'s Most Influential Philosophers: The Lives and Works of Confucius, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, and Cicero. Charles Rivers Editors. 2016.
\"Confucius\". World History Encyclopedia.
Roger T. Ames (1998). The Analects of Confucius: A Philosophical Translation. Ballantine Books. p. [1]. Confucius is probably the most influential thinker in human history, if influence is determined by the sheer number of people who have lived their lives, and died, in accordance with the thinker\'s vision of how people ought to live, and die. Like many other epochal figures of the ancient world (...)
Shona Grimbly (2000). Encyclopedia of the Ancient World. Fitzroy Dearborn Readers. p. 1. The teachings of Confucius proved to be remarkably enduring and had a huge influence on Chinese society for much of the following 2,500 years
\"Confucius\". Encyclopaedia Britannica. 16 February 2024.
\"Genius of the Ancient World\". BBC.
Charlente Tan (2016). \"Creativity and Confucius\". Journal of Genius and Eminence. 1 (1): 79. doi:10.18536/jge.2016.01.1.1.10. Confucius qualifies as a creative genius
Steve C. Wang (2000). \"In Search of Einstein\'s Genius\". Science. 289 (5844). doi:10.18536/jge.2016.01.1.1.10. Ask people who they associate with the word \'genius\' and they will invariably respond \'Einstein.\' One could argue that Newton, Archimedes, Shakespeare, and Confucius displayed genius of the same order
Frank N. Magill (1998). The Ancient World: Dictionary of World Biography, Volume 1. Fitzroy Dearborn Readers. p. 299. That education regime remained the heart of learning in China until the early twentieh century. The flourishing of his pedagogical approach is a testimony to Confucius\'s genius.
Raymond Bernard (1970). Prenatal Origin of Genius. Health Research. p. 48.
genius. (n.d.). Dictionary.com Unabridged (v 1.1). Retrieved May 17, 2008, from Dictionary.com website: Diogenes (1862). Diogenis Laertii De clarorum philosophorum vitis, dogmatibus et apophthegmatibus libri decem: Ex Italicis codicibus nunc primum excussis recensuit C. Gabr. Cobet ; Accedunt Olympiodori, Ammonii, Iamblichi, Porphyrii et aliorum vitae Platonis, Aristotelis,Pythagorae, Platoni et Isiodori Ant. Westermano et Marini vita Procli J.F. Boissonadio edentibus (in Greek). Didot. p. 152.
\"daemon | Etymology, origin and meaning of daemon by etymonline\". www.etymonline.com. Retrieved 2023-09-12.
\"genius | Etymology, origin and meaning of genius by etymonline\". www.etymonline.com. Retrieved 2023-09-12.
\"algol | Etymology, origin and meaning of algol by etymonline\". www.etymonline.com. Retrieved 2023-09-12.
Oxford Latin Dictionary (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982, 1985 reprinting), entries on genius, p. 759, and gigno, p. 764.
Shaw, Tamsin (2014). \"Wonder Boys?\". The New York Review of Books. 61 (15). Retrieved 5 October 2014.
Saint-Lambert, Jean-François de (ascribed). \"Genius\". The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d\'Alembert Collaborative Translation Project. Translated by John S.D. Glaus Ann Arbor: Michigan Publishing, University of Michigan Library, 2007. Web. 1 Apr. 2015. Trans. of \"Génie\", Encyclopédie ou Dictionnaire raisonné des sciences, des arts et des métiers, vol. 7. Paris, 1757.
Fancher, Raymond E (1998). Kimble, Gregory A; Wertheimer, Michael (eds.). Alfred Binet, General Psychologist. Portraits of Pioneers in Psychology. Vol. III. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. pp. 67–84. ISBN 978-1-55798-479-1.
Galton 1869
Bernstein, Peter L. (1998). Against the gods. Wiley. p. 160. ISBN 0-471-12104-5.
Bernstein (1998), page 163.
Gillham, Nicholas W. (2001). \"Sir Francis Galton and the birth of eugenics\". Annual Review of Genetics. 35 (1): 83–101. PMID 11700278.
Rogers, Carl (1995). On Becoming a Person. Houghton Mifflin. p. 175. ISBN 0-395-75531-X.
\"Van Gogh\'s Mental and Physical Health\". Archived from the original on 2013-12-06. Retrieved 2013-12-16.
\"Virginia Woolf\". 12 September 2022.
\"John F. Nash Jr. - The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel 1994\". NobelPrize.org.
Ernest Hemingway
Efroimson, V. P. The Genetics of Genius. 2002
Thys 2014, p. 146.
de Manzano, Örjan; Cervenka, Simon; Karabanov, Anke; Farde, Lars; Ullén, Fredrik (2010-05-17). \"Thinking Outside a Less Intact Box: Thalamic Dopamine D2 Receptor Densities Are Negatively Related to Psychometric Creativity in Healthy Individuals\". PLOS ONE. 5 (5): e10670. Bibcode:2010PLoSO...510670D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0010670. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 2871784. PMID 20498850.
Terman 1916, p. 79
Pintner 1931, pp. 356–357 \"From a study of these boyhood records, estimates of the probable I.Q.s of these men in childhood have been made…. It is of course obvious that much error may creep into an experiment of this sort, and the I.Q. assigned to any one individual is merely a rough estimate, depending to some extent upon how much information about his boyhood years has come down to us.\"
Shurkin 1992, pp. 70–71 \"She, of course, was not measuring IQ, she was measuring the length of biographies in a book. Generally, the more information, the higher the IQ. Subjects were dragged down if there was little information about their early lives.\"
Eysenck 1998, p. 126 \"Cox found that the more was known about a person\'s youthful accomplishments, that is, what he had done before he was engaged in doing the things that made him known as a genius, the higher was his IQ…. So she proceeded to make a statistical correction in each case for lack of knowledge; this bumped up the figure considerably for the geniuses about whom little was in fact known…. I am rather doubtful about the justification for making the correction. To do so assumes that the geniuses about whom least is known were precocious but their previous activities were not recorded. This may be true, but it is also possible to argue that perhaps there was nothing much to record! I feel uneasy about making such assumptions; doing so may be very misleading.\"
Cox 1926, pp. 215–219, 218 (Chapter XIII: Conclusions) \"3. That all equally intelligent children do not as adults achieve equal eminence is in part accounted for by our last conclusion: youths who achieve eminence are characterized not only by high intellectual traits, but also by persistence of motive and effort, confidence in their abilities, and great strength or force of character.\" (emphasis in original).
Terman & Merrill 1960, p. 18
Kaufman 2009, p. 117 \"Terman (1916), as I indicated, used near genius or genius for IQs above 140, but mostly very superior has been the label of choice\" (emphasis in original)
Wechsler 1939, p. 45
Eysenck 1998, pp. 127–128
Simonton 1999, p. 4 \"When Terman first used the IQ test to select a sample of child geniuses, he unknowingly excluded a special child whose IQ did not make the grade. Yet a few decades later that talent received the Nobel Prize in physics: William Shockley, the cocreator of the transistor. Ironically, not one of the more than 1,500 children who qualified according to his IQ criterion received so high an honor as adults.\"
Shurkin 2006, p. 13; see also \"The Truth About the \'Termites\'\" (Kaufman, S. B. 2009)
Leslie 2000, \"We also know that two children who were tested but didn\'t make the cut -- William Shockley and Luis Alvarez -- went on to win the Nobel Prize in Physics. According to Hastorf, none of the Terman kids ever won a Nobel or Pulitzer.\"
Park, Lubinski & Benbow 2010, \"There were two young boys, Luis Alvarez and William Shockley, who were among the many who took Terman\'s tests but missed the cutoff score. Despite their exclusion from a study of young \'geniuses,\' both went on to study physics, earn PhDs, and win the Nobel prize.\"
Gleick 2011, p. 32 \"Still, his score on the school IQ test was a merely respectable 125.\"
Robinson 2011, p. 47 \"After all, the American physicist Richard Feynman is generally considered an almost archetypal late 20th-century genius, not just in the United States but wherever physics is studied. Yet, Feynman\'s school-measured IQ, reported by him as 125, was not especially high\"
Jensen 1998, p. 577 \"Creativity and genius are unrelated to g except that a person\'s level of g acts as a threshold variable below which socially significant forms of creativity are highly improbable. This g threshold is probably at least one standard deviation above the mean level of g in the general population. Besides the traits that Galton thought necessary for \"eminence\" (viz., high ability, zeal, and persistence), genius implies outstanding creativity as well. Though such exceptional creativity is conspicuously lacking in the vast majority of people who have a high IQ, it is probably impossible to find any creative geniuses with low IQs. In other words, high ability is a necessary but not sufficient condition for the emergence of socially significant creativity. Genius itself should not be confused with merely high IQ, which is what we generally mean by the term \'gifted\'\" (emphasis in original)
Eysenck 1998, p. 127 \"What is obvious is that geniuses have a high degree of intelligence, but not outrageously high—there are many accounts of people in the population with IQs as high who have not achieved anything like the status of genius. Indeed, they may have achieved very little; there are large numbers of Mensa members who are elected on the basis of an IQ test, but whose creative achievements are nil. High achievement seems to be a necessary qualification for high creativity, but it does not seem to be a sufficient one.\" (emphasis in original)
Cf. Pickover 1998, p. 224 (quoting Syed Jan Abas) \"High IQ is not genius. A person with a high IQ may or may not be a genius. A genius may or may not have a high IQ.\"
Jensen, A. R. (1996). \"Giftedness and genius: Crucial differences\". In C. P. Benbow and D. Lubinski (Eds.), Intellectual talent: Psychometric and social issues, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. Pp. 393—411.
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Howard Caygill, Kant Dictionary (ISBN 0-631-17535-0).
Emine Hande Thuna (April 1, 2018). \"Kant on Informed Pure Judgments of Taste\". The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism. 76 (2). Oxford University Press: 163–174. doi:10.1111/jaac.12455. ISSN 0021-8529. OCLC 7626030498. Retrieved May 20, 2021. (KU 5:308, cited in the section III-Products of Genius)
Kant, Immanuel (1790). Kritik der Urteilskraft [The Critique of Judgment]. §46–§49. E.g. §46: \"Genius is a talent for producing something for which no determinate rule can be given, not a predisposition consisting of a skill for something that can be learned by following some rule or other.\" (trans. W.S. Pluhar).
\"The Project Gutenberg eBook of Collected Works, Volume XIII. Past and Present, by Thomas Carlyle\". www.gutenberg.org. Retrieved 2023-03-25.
Paul F. Boller, Jr., and John George, They Never Said It: A Book of Fake Quotes, Misquotes, & Misleading Attributions (1989), p. 12.
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Leslie, Mitchell (July–August 2000). \"The Vexing Legacy of Lewis Terman\". Stanford Magazine. Retrieved 5 June 2013.
Park, Gregory; Lubinski, David; Benbow, Camilla P. (2 November 2010). \"Recognizing Spatial Intelligence\". Scientific American. Retrieved 5 June 2013.
Pickover, Clifford A. (1998). Strange Brains and Genius: The Secret Lives of Eccentric Scientists and Madmen. Plenum Publishing Corporation. ISBN 978-0688168940.
Pintner, Rudolph (1931). Intelligence Testing: Methods and Results. New York: Henry Holt. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
Robinson, Andrew (2011). Genius: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-959440-5.
GrrlScientist (3 March 2011). \"Genius: A Very Short Introduction [Book Review]\". The Guardian.
Shurkin, Joel (1992). Terman\'s Kids: The Groundbreaking Study of How the Gifted Grow Up. Boston (MA): Little, Brown. ISBN 978-0316788908.
Frederic Golden (May 31, 1992). \"Tracking the IQ Elite : TERMAN\'S KIDS: The Groundbreaking Study of How the Gifted Grow Up, By Joel N. Shurkin\". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 2012-11-08.
Shurkin, Joel (2006). Broken Genius: The Rise and Fall of William Shockley, Creator of the Electronic Age. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-8815-7.
Brian Clegg. \"Review - Broken Genius - Joel Shurkin\". Popular Science. Archived from the original on 2006-10-06.
Simonton, Dean Keith (1999). Origins of genius: Darwinian perspectives on creativity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512879-6. JSTOR 3080746.
Terman, Lewis M. (1916). The Measurement of Intelligence: An Explanation of and a Complete Guide to the Use of the Stanford Revision and Extension of the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale. Riverside Textbooks in Education. Ellwood P. Cubberley (Editor\'s Introduction). Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Retrieved 26 June 2010.
Terman, Lewis M.; Merrill, Maude (1937). Measuring Intelligence: A Guide to the Administration of the New Revised Stanford–Binet Tests of Intelligence. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Terman, Lewis Madison; Merrill, Maude A. (1960). Stanford–Binet Intelligence Scale: Manual for the Third Revision Form L–M with Revised IQ Tables by Samuel R. Pinneau. Boston (MA): Houghton Mifflin.
Thys, Erik (2014). \"Creativity and Psychopathology: A Systematic Review\". Psychopathology. 47 (3): 141–147. doi:10.1159/000357822. PMID 24480798. S2CID 12879552.
Wechsler, David (1939). The Measurement of Adult Intelligence (first ed.). Baltimore, MD: Williams & Witkins. ISBN 978-1-59147-606-1.
Further readingWikiquote has quotations related to Genius.
Sources listed in chronological order of publication within each category.Books
Burks, Barbara S.; Jensen, Dortha W.; Terman, Lewis M. (1930). The Promise of Youth: Follow-up Studies of a Thousand Gifted Children. Genetic Studies of Genius Volume 3. Stanford (CA): Stanford University Press.
Terman, Lewis M.; Oden, Melita (1959). The Gifted Group at Mid-Life: Thirty-Five Years\' Follow-Up of the Superior Child. Genetic Studies of Genius Volume V. Stanford (CA): Stanford University Press. Retrieved 2 June 2013.
Harold Bloom (November 2002). Genius: A Mosaic of One Hundred Exemplary Creative Minds. Warner Books. ISBN 0-446-52717-3.
Simonton, Dean Keith (2004). Creativity in Science: Chance, Logic, Genius, and Zeitgeist. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-54369-X.
David Galenson (27 December 2005). Old Masters and Young Geniuses: The Two Life Cycles of Artistic Creativity. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-12109-5.
Simonton, Dean Keith (2009). Genius 101. New York: Springer. ISBN 978-0-8261-0627-8.
Robinson, Andrew (2010). Sudden Genius?: The Gradual Path to Creative Breakthroughs. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-956995-3.
McMahon, Darrin M. (2013). Divine Fury: A History of Genius. New York, NY: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-00325-9.
Weiner, Eric (2016). The Geography of Genius: Lessons from the World\'s Most Creative Places. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-1451691672.
Review articles
Ellenberg, Jordan (30 May 2014). \"The Wrong Way to Treat Child Geniuses\". Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 1 June 2014.
Feldman, David (1984). \"A Follow-up of Subjects Scoring above 180 IQ in Terman\'s Genetic Studies of Genius\". Exceptional Children. 50 (6): 518–523. doi:10.1177/001440298405000604. S2CID 146862140. Retrieved 8 July 2010. Put into the context of the psychometric movement as a whole, it is clear that the positive extreme of the IQ distribution is not as different from other IQ levels as might have been expected.
Web articles
Wilson, Tracy V. (1998–2009). \"How Geniuses Work\". HowStuffWorks.com. Retrieved 2021-02-20.
Gupta, Sanjay (2006). \"Brainteaser: Scientists Dissect Mystery of Genius\". CNN.com. Retrieved 2021-02-20.
Callard, Agnes (2020-11-24). \"Torturing Geniuses\". The Point Magazine. Retrieved 2021-02-20. On societal expectations of geniuses.
Encyclopedia entries
Feldman, David Henry (2009). \"Genius\". In Kerr, Barbara (ed.). Encyclopedia of Giftedness, Creativity, and Talent. Vol. 2. Thousand Oaks (CA): SAGE. ISBN 978-141294971-2.
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Our Most Popular Scientists – Top 100
Here’s our alphabetical list of the top 100 or so most popular scientists on the Famous Scientists website, ordered by surname.Alternatively, if you’re looking for more scientists in particular fields, you could try our pages here:→ Astronomers
→ Biologists & Health Scientists
→ Chemists
→ Geologists & Paleontologists
→ Mathematicians
→ Physicists
→ Scientists in Ancient Times
A
luis alvarezLuis Alvarez 1911 – 1988.
The iridium layer, dinosaur death by meteorite impact, and subatomic particle discoveries.
andre-marie ampereAndré-Marie Ampère 1775 – 1836.
Discovered that wires carrying electric current can attract and repel magnetically; founded electromagnetic theory.
anaximanderAnaximander c. 610 BC – c 546 BC.
An ancient scientific revolution: the first person in history to recognize that our planet is free in space and does not need to sit on something.
Mary AnningMary Anning 1799 – 1847.
Ancient animals, fossils, and paleontology: discovered the first complete specimen of a plesiosaur; deduced the diets of dinosaurs.
archimedesArchimedes c. 287 BC – 212 BC.
Founded the sciences of mechanics and hydrostatics, calculated pi precisely, devised the law of exponents, created new geometrical proofs, invented numerous ingenious mechanical devices and more.
AristarchusAristarchus c. 310 BC – c. 230 BC.
Promoted the idea that the earth follows a circular orbit around the sun eighteen centuries before Nicolaus Copernicus resurrected the idea.
AristotleAristotle 384 BC – 322 BC.
A genius whose philosophical ideas are still taught, but whose contributions to science retarded progress for almost two millennia.
Amedeo AvogadroAmedeo Avogadro 1776 – 1856.
The first scientist to realize that elements can exist in the form of molecules rather than as individual atoms; originator of Avogadro’s law.
B
francis-baconFrancis Bacon 1561 – 1626.
Shook the foundations of Aristotle’s scientific influence popularizing the scientific method, grounding science in experiments and observations rather than logic-based Graham Bell 1847 – 1922.
Inventor of the metal detector, the telephone, and the photophone – the first device to carry the human voice using light.
daniel-bernoulliDaniel Bernoulli 1700 – 1782.
Discovered the Bernoulli Effect explaining how aircraft wings generate lift; formulated a kinetic theory relating the phenomenon of temperature to particle speeds in gases; made major discoveries in the theory of risk.
Elizabeth BlackwellElizabeth Blackwell 1821 – 1910.
The first woman to qualify as a physician in America; founder of America’s first medical school for women.
niels-bohrNiels Bohr 1885 – 1962.
Founded quantum mechanics when he remodeled the atom so electrons occupied ‘allowed’ orbits around the nucleus while all other orbits were forofferden; architect of the Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics.
robert-boyleRobert Boyle 1627 – 1691.
Transformed chemistry from a field bogged down in alchemy and mysticism into one based on measurement. He defined elements, compounds and mixtures; and he discovered the first gas law – Boyle’s Law.
tycho-braheTycho Brahe 1546 – 1601.
Produced the best star catalog that had ever been compiled and measured the orbit of Mars with unprecedented accuracy, paving the way for Kepler’s laws of planetary motion and Newton’s law of gravity.
brahmaguptaBrahmagupta 597 – 668.
Established zero as a number and defined its mathematical properties; discovered the formula for solving quadratic equations.
robert-bunsenRobert Bunsen 1811 – 1899.
Discovered cesium and ruofferium; discovered the antidote to arsenic poisoning; invented the zinc-carbon battery and flash photography; revealed the secrets of geysers.
C
santiago ramon-y-cajalSantiago Ramón y Cajal 1852 – 1934.
Founder of modern neuroscience: proved the neuron doctrine, which says that neurons behave as biochemically distinct cells rather than a network of interlinked cells.
Rachel CarsonRachel Carson 1907 – 1964.
A founder of 20th century environmentalism, her book Silent Spring led to a reappraisal of the effect of chemicals such as DDT on the environment, leading to bans and heavy restrictions.
George Washington CarverGeorge Washington Carver c.1860 – 1943.
Improved the agricultural economy of the United States by promoting nitrogen-providing peanuts as an alternative crop to cotton to prevent soil depletion.
james chadwickJames Chadwick 1891 – 1974.
Discovered the neutron and led the British scientists who worked on the Manhattan Project.
subrahmanyan chandrasekharSubrahmanyan Chandrasekhar 1910 – 1995.
Discovered that massive stars can collapse under their own gravity to reach infinite density. Today we call these collapsed stars black holes.
erwin chargaffErwin Chargaff 1905 – 2002.
Chargaff’s rules paved the way to the discovery of DNA’s structure.
nicolaus copernicusNicolaus Copernicus 1473 to 1543.
Started the scientific revolution with his book The Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres, explaining his belief that the solar system is centered on the sun not on the earth.
jacques cousteauJacques Cousteau 1910 – 1997.
Oscar winning marine pioneer; coinvented the breathe-on-demand valve for SCUBA diving; popularized marine biology with several dramatic television series.
marie curieMarie Curie 1867 – 1934.
Codiscovered the chemical elements radium and polonium; made numerous pioneering contributions to the study of radioactive elements; carried out the first research into the treatment of tumors with radiation.
D
john daltonJohn Dalton 1766 – 1844.
Dalton’s Atomic Theory is the basis of chemistry; discovered Gay-Lussac’s Law relating gases’ temperature, volume, and pressure; discovered the law of partial gas pressures.
charles darwinCharles Darwin 1809 – 1882.
Authored one of the most famous books in history, On the Origin of Species, in which he described and provided evidence for the theory of evolution by natural selection.
DemocritusDemocritus c. 460 — c. 370 BC
Devised an atomic theory featuring tiny particles always in motion interacting through collisions; advocated a universe containing an infinity of diverse inhabited worlds governed by natural, mechanistic laws rather than gods; deduced that the light of stars explains the Milky Way’s appearance; discovered that a cone’s volume is one-third that of the cylinder with the same base and height.
rene descartesRené Descartes 1596 – 1650.
One of the great philosophers; advocate of skepticism in the scientific method; creator of new mathematical ideas including the independent founding of analytical geometry. Cartesian coordinates are named in his honor.
Frank DrakeFrank Drake Born 1930.
A founder of the search for extraterrestrial intelligence; devised the Drake equation to estimate the number of intelligent civilizations in our galaxy; first person to map the center of the Milky Way galaxy.
E
albert einsteinAlbert Einstein 1879 – 1955.
Einstein’s theories of special & general relativity delivered a remarkable transformation in our understanding of light, gravity and time, while special relativity yielded the most famous equation in history, E = mc2. Einstein explained the photoelectric effect and provided powerful evidence that atoms and molecules actually exist.
eratosthenesEratosthenes c. 276 BC – c. 194 BC.
Accurately calculated Earth’s size 2,500 years ago; founded the science of geography; and devised the famous prime number sieve.
EuclidEuclid c. 325 – c. 270 BC.
Authored Elements, the most famous and most published mathematical work in history; another great work, Optics, explained light’s behavior using geometrical principles – the basis of artistic perspective, astronomical methods and navigation methods for more than two thousand years.
euclidLeonhard Euler 1707 – 1783.
Published more mathematics than any other single mathematician, much of it groundbreaking. An astonishing fraction of the total research work in mathematics and the physical sciences between 1730 and 1780 was carried out solely by Euler.
F
michael faradayMichael Faraday 1791 – 1867.
Discovered electromagnetic induction; devised Faraday’s laws of electrolysis; discovered the first experimental link between light and magnetism; carried out the first room-temperature liquefaction of a gas; discovered benzene.
pierre de fermatPierre de Fermat 1607 – 1665.
Co-founded the disciplines of analytic geometry and probability theory and was a key player in the invention of calculus. There’s more to Fermat than his famous last theorem.
fibonacci leonardo-of-pisaFibonacci c. 1170 – c. 1245.
The rebirth of Western mathematics: Fibonacci’s Book of Calculation introduced the Indian number system, now used worldwide, to Europe.
ronald fisherRonald Fisher 1890 – 1962.
Invented experimental design; devised the statistical concept of variance; unified evolution by natural selection with Mendel’s rules of inheritance defining the new field of population genetics.
alexander flemingAlexander Fleming 1881 – 1955.
Discovered that treating wounds and infections with antiseptic agents caused more deaths than if no action was taken. Discovered penicillin and predicted the rise of antibiotic resistant bacteria.
benjamin franklinBenjamin Franklin 1706 – 1790.
A founding father of the USA, Franklin shaped our understanding of electricity, coined the electrical terms positive and negative, and invented the lightning rod and bifocal spectacles.
rosalind franklinRosalind Franklin 1920 – 1958.
Provided much of the experimental data used to establish the structure of DNA. Discovered that DNA can exist in two forms. Established that coal acts as a molecular sieve.
G
galenGalen 129 – c. 216
Began his medical practice as a physician to gladiators and established a link between diet and health. Galen created a flawed doctrine that dominated Western and Arab medicine for 1,500 years.
galileo galileiGalileo Galilei 1564 – 1642.
The father of modern science, Galileo discovered the first moons ever known to orbit another planet and that the Milky Way is made of stars. He rationalized how objects are affected by gravity, stated the principle of inertia, and proposed the first theory of relativity.
Cecilia Payne-GaposchkinCecilia Payne-Gaposchkin 1900 – 1979.
Discovered that the most abundant chemical elements in stars and hence in the universe are hydrogen and helium.
carl friedrich gaussCarl Friedrich Gauss 1777 – 1855.
The last master of all mathematics, Gauss revolutionized number theory and invented the method of least squares and the fast Fourier transform. His profound contributions to the physical sciences include Gauss’s Law & Gauss’s Law for Magnetism.
sophie germainSophie Germain 1776 – 1831.
Self-taught mathematican who pretended to be a man. Developed elasticity theory and made significant progress in her personal program to prove Fermat’s last theorem.
j. willard gibbsWillard Gibbs 1839 – 1903.
Gibbs invented vector analysis and founded the sciences of modern statistical mechanics and chemical thermodynamics.
jane goodallJane Goodall Born 1934.
Ground breaking discoveries in chimpanzee behavior; established that chimpanzees have similar social behavior to humans and also that they make tools and eat and hunt for meat.
H
william harveyWilliam Harvey 1578 to 1657.
Explained blood circulation for the first time, showing there is a complete circuit beginning and ending in the heart.
Caroline HerschelCaroline Herschel 1750 – 1848
Discovered five comets; produced an award-winning catalogue of nebulae; the brother-sister team of William & Caroline Herschel increased the number of known nebulae from about 100 to 2,500.
heinrich hertzHeinrich Hertz 1857 – 1894.
Discovered radio waves, proving James Clerk Maxwell’s theory of electromagnetism; discovered the photoelectric effect, providing a clue to the existence of the quantum world.
david hilbertDavid Hilbert 1862 – 1943.
Famed for his 23 problems, Hilbert propelled mathematics to new heights. He replaced Euclid’s axioms dating from 2,000 years earlier, allowing the unification of 2D and 3D geometry; he created Hilbert Space, now essential in advanced physical science.
HipparchusHipparchus c. 190 BC – c. 120 BC.
One of antiquity’s greatest scientists: founded the mathematical discipline of trigonometry; measured the earth-moon distance accurately; discovered the precession of the equinoxes; documented the positions and magnitudes of over 850 stars; his combinatorics work was unequalled until 1870.
HippocratesHippocrates 460 BC – c. 370 BC.
The father of Western medicine: systematized medical treatments, disentangling them from religion and superstitions; trained physicians; produced a large body of medical textbooks. The famous Hippocratic Oath binds physicians to good ethical practices.
robert hookeRobert Hooke 1635 – 1703.
Discovered cells and wrote one of the most significant books in scientific history, Micrographia, revealing the microscopic world for the first time; discovered Hooke’s Law in physics; invented the balance spring enabling pocket watches to be made.
Grace HopperGrace Hopper 1906 – 1992.
Pioneer of electronic computers. Invented the first compiler and was the principal architect of COBOL, the most widely used computer language of the twentieth century.
jack hornerJack Horner Born 1946.
Popularizer of science: discovered that dinosaurs cared for their young and some nested in colonies. Working on reactivating dormant dinosaur DNA to hatch a modern-day dinosaur.
Edwin HubbleEdwin Hubble 1889 – 1953.
Discovered there are galaxies beyond our own. Showed we live in a universe of many galaxies, each an isolated ‘island universe,’ separated from others by immense distances. Independently discovered and popularized Hubble’s law, believed by most cosmologists to indicate we live in an expanding universe.
james huttonJames Hutton 1726 – 1797.
Founded modern geology when he discovered how to interpret rocks. Found our planet is very much older than previously believed and devised the principle of uniformitarianism, which says that our world was shaped by natural processes such as erosion and deposition.
HypatiaHypatia c. 370 – 415 AD.
One of the most eminent mathematicians of late classical antiquity; scholars traveled from around the classical world to learn mathematics and astronomy at her school. Hypatia’s murder signaled the coming of the dark ages.
IJ
irene joliot-curieIrene Joliot-Curie 1897 – 1956.
Codiscovered how to convert stable chemical elements into ‘designer’ radioactive elements; these have saved millions of lives and are used in tens of millions of medical procedures every year.
K
johannes keplerJohannes Kepler 1571 to 1630.
Discovered the solar system’s planets follow elliptical paths; showed that tides on the earth are caused mainly by the moon; proved how logarithms work; discovered the inverse square law of light intensity; his laws of planetary motion led Newton to his law of gravitation.
omar khayyamOmar Khayyam 1048 – 1131.
A poet, philosopher and scientist, Khayyam calculated the length of a year to the most accurate value ever, and showed how the intersections of conic sections can be utilized to yield geometric solutions of cubic equations.
stephanie kwolekStephanie Kwolek 1923 – 2014.
Invented kevlar, the incredibly strong plastic used in applications ranging from body armor to tennis racquet strings.
L
Karl LandsteinerKarl Landsteiner 1868 – 1943.
Discovered the human blood group system, paving the way for safe blood transfusions; discovered the Rh factor in blood; proved polio is an infectious disease spread by a virus; discovered haptens.
antoine lavoisierAntoine Lavoisier 1743 – 1794.
A founder of modern chemistry; discovered oxygen’s role in combustion and respiration; discovered that water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen; proved that diamond and charcoal are different forms of the same element, which he named carbon.
Henrietta LeavittHenrietta Leavitt 1868 – 1921.
Discovered that Cepheid variable stars act as a ‘standard candle,’ opening the door to measuring the distances to far-distant stars and the discovery of galaxies beyond the Milky Way.
antonie van leeuwenhoekAntonie van Leeuwenhoek 1632 – 1723.
The father of microbiology, he used remarkable self-made lenses to discover single-celled animals and plants, bacteria, and spermatozoa.
carolus linnaeusCarolus Linnaeus 1707 – 1778.
Organized our view of the natural world with the two-part naming system we use to classify all lifeforms; named and classified about 13,000 lifeforms; broke with tradition by classifying humans in the same way as other lifeforms.
ada lovelaceAda Lovelace 1815 – 1852.
The mother of computing science; contributed to the first published computer program; was the first person to see that computers could do more than mathematical calculations, recognizing that musical notes and letters of the alphabet could be turned into numbers for manipulation by computers.
M
james clerk-maxwellJames Clerk Maxwell 1831 – 1879.
Transformed our understanding of nature: his famous equations unified the forces of electricity and magnetism, indicating that light is an electromagnetic wave. His kinetic theory established that temperature is entirely dependent on the movement of particles.
barbara mcclintockBarbara McClintock 1902 – 1992.
Groundbreaking genetics: showed that genes switch the physical traits of an organism on or off; discovered chromosomal crossover, which increases genetic variation in species; discovered transposition – that genes can move about within chromosomes.
lise meitnerLise Meitner 1878 – 1968.
Discovered that nuclear fission can produce enormous amounts of energy; codiscovered the phenomenon of radioactive recoil.
gregor mendelGregor Mendel 1822 – 1884.
Founded the science of genetics; identified many of the rules of heredity; identified recessive and dominant traits and that traits are passed from parents to offspring in a mathematically predictable way.
dmitri mendeleevDmitri Mendeleev 1834 – 1907.
Discovered the periodic table in a dream. Utilized the organizing principles of the periodic table to correctly predict the existence and properties of six new chemical elements.
henry moseleyHenry Moseley 1887 – 1915.
Proved that every element’s identity is uniquely determined by its number of protons establishing the true organizing principle of the periodic table; correctly predicted the existence of four new chemical elements; invented the atomic battery.
N
isaac newtonIsaac Newton 1643 to 1727.
Profoundly changed our understanding of nature with his law of universal gravitation and his laws of motion; invented calculus, the field of mathematics that dominates the physical sciences; generalized the binomial theorem; built the first ever reflecting telescope; showed sunlight is made of all the colors of the rainbow.
florence nightingaleFlorence Nightingale 1820 – 1910.
A health pioneer who transformed nursing into a respected, highly trained profession; used statistics to analyze wider health outcomes; advocated sanitary reforms largely credited with adding 20 years to life expectancy between 1871 and 1935.
alfred nobelAlfred Nobel 1833 – 1896.
Invented dynamite, the blasting cap, gelignite, and ballistite; grew enormously wealthy by patenting and manufacturing explosives; used his wealth to bequeath annual prizes in science, literature and peace.
emmy noetherEmmy Noether 1882 – 1935.
Probably the greatest female mathematician in history, Noether’s theorem revealed a fundamental property of our universe – that for every conservation law there is an invariant. Her founding work in abstract algebra revolutionized mathematics.
O
hans christian oerstedHans Christian Oersted 1777 – 1851.
Discovered electromagnetism when he found that electric current caused a nearby magnetic needle to move; discovered piperine and achieved the first isolation of the element aluminum.
P
louis pasteurLouis Pasteur 1822 – 1895.
The father of modern microbiology; transformed chemistry and biology with his discovery of mirror-image molecules; discovered anaerobic bacteria; established the germ theory of disease; invented food preservation by pasteurization.
linus paulingLinus Pauling 1901 – 1994.
Maverick giant of chemistry; formulated valence bond theory and electronegativity; founded the fields of quantum chemistry, molecular biology, and molecular genetics. Discovered the alpha-helix structure of proteins; proved that sickle-cell anemia is a molecular disease.
max planckMax Planck 1858 – 1947.
Founded quantum theory with his proposal that hot objects radiate only certain allowed values of energy, all of which are multiples of a number now called the Planck constant – all other values of energy are forofferden.
pythagorasPythagoras c. 570 BC – 497 BC.
The Pythagoreans believed the universe was constructed using mathematics and everything could be described with numbers. They established a link between mathematics and music; proved Pythagoras’s theorem; discovered irrational numbers; and discovered the Platonic Solids.
Claudius PtolemyClaudius Ptolemy AD c. 100 – c. 170.
Author of the Almagest, which contained a catalogue of over a thousand stars with their positions, relative brightnesses and constellations. His mathematical model predicting the movements of the planets was unsurpassed for almost 1,500 years.
QR
c-v ramanC. V. Raman 1888 – 1970.
Discovered that light can donate a small amount of energy to a molecule, changing the light’s color and causing the molecule to vibrate. The color change acts as a ‘fingerprint’ for the molecule that can be used to identify molecules and detect diseases such as cancer.
srinivasa ramanujanSrinivasa Ramanujan 1887 – 1920.
A largely self-taught pure mathematician, he enriched number theory with thousands of new identities, equations and theorems.
Francesco RediFrancesco Redi 1626 – 1697.
Devised and performed the first controlled experiments in scientific history; showed that flies breed and lay eggs and do not spontaneously generate; founded modern parasitology.
ernest rutherfordErnest Rutherford 1871 – 1937.
The father of nuclear chemistry and nuclear physics; discovered and named the atomic nucleus, the proton, the alpha particle and the beta particle; discovered the concept of nuclear half-lives; achieved the first laboratory transformation of one element into another.
S
theodor schwannTheodor Schwann 1810 – 1882.
Established that the cell is the basic unit of all living things; his classification of cells is the foundation of modern histology; discovered the enzyme pepsin; identified the role microorganisms play in alcohol fermentation.
gene shoemakerGene Shoemaker 1928 to 1997.
The first astrogeologist and a founder of planetary impact science; proved large craters on Earth were caused by collisions with asteroids and comets rather than volcanic activity; proposed microscopic life could travel between planets on rocks blasted into space by asteroid impacts.
B. F. SkinnerB. F. Skinner 1904 – 1990.
The 20th century’s most influential psychologist; pioneered the science of behaviorism; discovered the power of positive reinforcement in learning; designed the first psychological experiments producing quantitatively repeatable results.
T
thalesThales of Miletus c. 624 BC – c. 546 BC
The first scientist in history, Thales looked for patterns in nature to explain the way the world worked. He replaced superstitions with science. He was the first person to use deductive logic to find new results in geometry.
j-j thomsonJ. J. Thomson 1856 – 1940.
Discovered the electron; invented one of the most powerful tools in analytical chemistry – the mass spectrometer; obtained the first evidence for isotopes of stable elements.
U
V
andreas vesaliusAndreas Vesalius 1514 – 1564.
Founded modern anatomy, overthrowing misconceptions about the body that had persisted for over a thousand years.
rudolf virchowRudolf Virchow 1821 – 1902.
A founder of both pathology and social medicine, Virchow correctly identified that diseases are caused by malfunctioning cells. He named leukemia and was the first to catalog and name conditions such embolism, thrombosis, chordoma, and ochronosis.
alessandro voltaAlessandro Volta 1745 – 1827.
Pioneer of electrical science; invented the electric battery; wrote the first electromotive series; isolated methane for the first time; discovered a methane-air mixture could be exploded using an electric spark – the basis of the internal combustion engine.
W
alfred russel wallaceAlfred R. Wallace 1823 – 1913.
Independently formulated the theory of evolution by natural selection; was one of the first biologists to express concern about the effects human activities were having on the natural world.
james wattJames Watt 1736 – 1819.
Father of the industrial revolution; radically improved the steam engine; invented high pressure steam engines; independently discovered latent heat; invented the world’s first copying machine.
alfred wegenerAlfred Wegener 1880 – 1930.
Discovered continental drift, proposing that our planet once consisted of ocean surrounding a single great continent he called Pangea that split apart over many millions of years to form the continents we see today.
XY
chen ning yangChen-Ning Yang Born 1922.
Thought the unthinkable, discovering that parity is not conserved; Yang-Mills theory is at the heart of the Standard Model in physics.
Z
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Eudoxus: The first mathematical model of the universe
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Inge Lehmann: Discovered our planet’s solid inner core
Chen-Ning Yang: Shattered a fundamental belief of physicists
Robert Hooke: Unveiled the spectacular microscopic world
Barbara McClintock: A Nobel Prize after years of rejection
Pythagoras: The cult of numbers and the need for proof
J. J. Thomson: Discovered the electron
Johannes Kepler: Solved the mystery of the planets
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Maurice Hilleman: Record breaking inventor of over 40 vaccines
Marie Curie: Won – uniquely – both the chemistry & physics Nobel Prizes
Jacques Cousteau: Marine pioneer, inventor, Oscar winner
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Milutin Milankovic: Proved Earth’s climate is regulated by its orbit
Antoine Lavoisier: The giant of chemistry who was executed
Emmy Noether: The greatest of female mathematicians, she unlocked a secret of the universe
Wilder Penfield: Pioneer of brain surgery; mapped the brain’s functions
Charles Nicolle: Eradicated typhus epidemics
Samuel Morse: The telegraph and Morse code
Jane Goodall: Major discoveries in chimpanzee behavior
John Philoponus: 6th century anticipation of Galileo and Newton
William Perkin: Youthful curiosity brought the color purple to all
Democritus: Atomic theory BC and a universe of diverse inhabited worlds
Susumu Tonegawa: Discovered how our bodies make millions of different antibodies
Cecilia Payne: Discovered that stars are almost entirely hydrogen and helium
Top 100 Scientists
Our Top 100 Scientists
Our Most Popular Scientists
Astronomers
Biologists & Health Scientists
Chemists
Geologists and in Ancient Times
List of Scientists
Alphabetical List
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Johannes Kepler, God, and the Solar System
Charles Babbage and the Vengeance of Organ-Grinders
Howard Robertson – the Man who Proved Einstein Wrong
Susskind, Alice, and Wave-Particle Gullibility
Alphabetical List of Scientists
Louis Agassiz | Maria Gaetana Agnesi | Al-BattaniAbu Nasr Al-Farabi | Alhazen | Jim Al-Khalili | Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi | Mihailo Petrovic Alas | Angel Alcala | Salim Ali | Luis Alvarez | Andre Marie Ampère | Anaximander | Carl Anderson | Mary Anning | Virginia Apgar | Archimedes | Agnes Arber | Aristarchus | Aristotle | Svante Arrhenius | Oswald Avery | Amedeo Avogadro | AvicennaCharles Babbage | Francis Bacon | Alexander Bain | John Logie Baird | Joseph Banks | Ramon Barba | John Bardeen | Charles Barkla | Ibn Battuta | William Bayliss | George Beadle | Arnold Orville Beckman | Henri Becquerel | Emil Adolf Behring | Alexander Graham Bell | Emile Berliner | Claude Bernard | Timothy John Berners-Lee | Daniel Bernoulli | Jacob Berzelius | Henry Bessemer | Hans Bethe | Homi Jehangir Bhabha | Alfred Binet | Clarence Birdseye | Kristian Birkeland | James Black | Elizabeth Blackwell | Alfred Blalock | Katharine Burr Blodgett | Franz Boas | David Bohm | Aage Bohr | Niels Bohr | Ludwig Boltzmann | Max Born | Carl Bosch | Robert Bosch | Jagadish Chandra Bose | Satyendra Nath Bose | Walther Wilhelm Georg Bothe | Robert Boyle | Lawrence Bragg | Tycho Brahe | Brahmagupta | Hennig Brand | Georg Brandt | Wernher Von Braun | J Harlen Bretz | Louis de Broglie | Alexander Brongniart | Robert Brown | Michael E. Brown | Lester R. Brown | Eduard Buchner | Linda Buck | William Buckland | Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon | Robert Bunsen | Luther Burbank | Jocelyn Bell Burnell | Macfarlane Burnet | Thomas BurnetBenjamin Cabrera | Santiago Ramon y Cajal | Rachel Carson | George Washington Carver | Henry Cavendish | Anders Celsius | James Chadwick | Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar | Erwin Chargaff | Noam Chomsky | Steven Chu | Leland Clark | John Cockcroft | Arthur Compton | Nicolaus Copernicus | Gerty Theresa Cori | Charles-Augustin de Coulomb | Jacques Cousteau | Brian Cox | Francis Crick | James Croll | Nicholas Culpeper | Marie Curie | Pierre Curie | Georges Cuvier | Adalbert CzernyGottlieb Daimler | John Dalton | James Dwight Dana | Charles Darwin | Humphry Davy | Peter Debye | Max Delbruck | Jean Andre Deluc | Democritus | René Descartes | Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel | Diophantus | Paul Dirac | Prokop Divis | Theodosius Dobzhansky | Frank Drake | K. Eric DrexlerJohn Eccles | Arthur Eddington | Thomas Edison | Paul Ehrlich | Albert Einstein | Gertrude Elion | Empedocles | Eratosthenes | Euclid | Eudoxus | Leonhard Euler
Michael Faraday | Pierre de Fermat | Enrico Fermi | Richard Feynman | Fibonacci – Leonardo of Pisa | Emil Fischer | Ronald Fisher | Alexander Fleming | John Ambrose Fleming | Howard Florey | Henry Ford | Lee De Forest | Dian Fossey | Leon Foucault | Benjamin Franklin | Rosalind Franklin | Sigmund Freud | Elizebeth Smith FriedmanGalen | Galileo Galilei | Francis Galton | Luigi Galvani | George Gamow | Martin Gardner | Carl Friedrich Gauss | Murray Gell-Mann | Sophie Germain | Willard Gibbs | William Gilbert | Sheldon Lee Glashow | Robert Goddard | Maria Goeppert-Mayer | Thomas Gold | Jane Goodall | Stephen Jay Gould | Otto von GuerickeFritz Haber | Ernst Haeckel | Otto Hahn | Albrecht von Haller | Edmund Halley | Alister Hardy | Thomas Harriot | William Harvey | Stephen Hawking | Otto Haxel | Werner Heisenberg | Hermann von Helmholtz | Jan Baptist von Helmont | Joseph Henry | Caroline Herschel | John Herschel | William Herschel | Gustav Ludwig Hertz | Heinrich Hertz | Karl F. Herzfeld | George de Hevesy | Antony Hewish | David Hilbert | Maurice Hilleman | Hipparchus | Hippocrates | Shintaro Hirase | Dorothy Hodgkin | Robert Hooke | Frederick Gowland Hopkins | William Hopkins | Grace Murray Hopper | Frank Hornby | Jack Horner | Bernardo Houssay | Fred Hoyle | Edwin Hubble | Alexander von Humboldt | Zora Neale Hurston | James Hutton | Christiaan Huygens | HypatiaErnesto Illy | Jan Ingenhousz | Ernst Ising | Keisuke ItoMae Carol Jemison | Edward Jenner | J. Hans D. Jensen | Irene Joliot-Curie | James Prescott Joule | Percy Lavon JulianMichio Kaku | Heike Kamerlingh Onnes | Pyotr Kapitsa | Friedrich August Kekulé | Frances Kelsey | Pearl Kendrick | Johannes Kepler | Abdul Qadeer Khan | Omar Khayyam | Alfred Kinsey | Gustav Kirchoff | Martin Klaproth | Robert Koch | Emil Kraepelin | Thomas Kuhn | Stephanie KwolekJoseph-Louis Lagrange | Jean-Baptiste Lamarck | Hedy Lamarr | Edwin Herbert Land | Karl Landsteiner | Pierre-Simon Laplace | Max von Laue | Antoine Lavoisier | Ernest Lawrence | Henrietta Leavitt | Antonie van Leeuwenhoek | Inge Lehmann | Gottfried Leibniz | Georges Lemaître | Leonardo da Vinci | Niccolo Leoniceno | Aldo Leopold | Rita Levi-Montalcini | Claude Levi-Strauss | Willard Frank Libby | Justus von Liebig | Carolus Linnaeus | Joseph Lister | John Locke | Hendrik Antoon Lorentz | Konrad Lorenz | Ada Lovelace | Percival Lowell | Lucretius | Charles Lyell | Trofim Lysenko
Ernst Mach | Marcello Malpighi | Jane Marcet | Guglielmo Marconi | Lynn Margulis | Barry Marshall | Polly Matzinger | Matthew Maury | James Clerk Maxwell | Ernst Mayr | Barbara McClintock | Lise Meitner | Gregor Mendel | Dmitri Mendeleev | Franz Mesmer | Antonio Meucci | John Michell | Albert Abraham Michelson | Thomas Midgeley Jr. | Milutin Milankovic | Maria Mitchell | Mario Molina | Thomas Hunt Morgan | Samuel Morse | Henry MoseleyUkichiro Nakaya | John Napier | Giulio Natta | John Needham | John von Neumann | Thomas Newcomen | Isaac Newton | Charles Nicolle | Florence Nightingale | Tim Noakes | Alfred Nobel | Emmy Noether | Christiane Nusslein-Volhard | Bill NyeHans Christian Oersted | Georg Ohm | J. Robert Oppenheimer | Wilhelm Ostwald | William OughtredBlaise Pascal | Louis Pasteur | Wolfgang Ernst Pauli | Linus Pauling | Randy Pausch | Ivan Pavlov | Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin | Wilder Penfield | Marguerite Perey | William Perkin | John Philoponus | Jean Piaget | Philippe Pinel | Max Planck | Pliny the Elder | Henri Poincaré | Karl Popper | Beatrix Potter | Joseph Priestley | Proclus | Claudius Ptolemy | PythagorasAdolphe Quetelet | Harriet Quimby | Thabit ibn QurraC. V. Raman | Srinivasa Ramanujan | William Ramsay | John Ray | Prafulla Chandra Ray | Francesco Redi | Sally Ride | Bernhard Riemann | Wilhelm Röntgen | Hermann Rorschach | Ronald Ross | Ibn Rushd | Ernest RutherfordCarl Sagan | Abdus Salam | Jonas Salk | Frederick Sanger | Alberto Santos-Dumont | Walter Schottky | Erwin Schrödinger | Theodor Schwann | Glenn Seaborg | Hans Selye | Charles Sherrington | Gene Shoemaker | Ernst Werner von Siemens | George Gaylord Simpson | B. F. Skinner | William Smith | Frederick Soddy | Mary Somerville | Arnold Sommerfeld | Hermann Staudinger | Nicolas Steno | Nettie Stevens | William John Swainson | Leo SzilardNiccolo Tartaglia | Edward Teller | Nikola Tesla Referral | Thales of Miletus | Theon of Alexandria | Benjamin Thompson | J. J. Thomson | William Thomson | Henry David Thoreau | Kip S. Thorne | Clyde Tombaugh | Susumu Tonegawa | Evangelista Torricelli | Charles Townes | Youyou Tu | Alan Turing | Neil deGrasse TysonHarold UreyCraig Venter | Vladimir Vernadsky | Andreas Vesalius | Rudolf Virchow | Artturi Virtanen | Alessandro VoltaSelman Waksman | George Wald | Alfred Russel Wallace | John Wallis | Ernest Walton | James Watson | James Watt | Alfred Wegener | John Archibald Wheeler | Maurice Wilkins | Thomas Willis | E. O. Wilson | Sven Wingqvist | Sergei Winogradsky | Carl Woese | Friedrich Wöhler | Wilbur and Orville Wright | Wilhelm WundtChen-Ning YangAhmed Zewail
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