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1926 Palestine HEBREW Israel RARE YOUTH MAGAZINE Jewish RUSSIAN AVANT GARDE For Sale
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1926 Palestine HEBREW Israel RARE YOUTH MAGAZINE Jewish RUSSIAN AVANT GARDE:
$110.00
DESCRIPTION : This RARE and ILLUSTRATED Eretz Israeli- Palestine- Hebrew-Jewish CHILDREN- YOUTH MAGAZINE in the name of"MOLEDETH "(HOMELAND ) was published in 1926 ( dated ) inTEL AVIV- ERETZ ISRAEL ( Thenalso refered to as PALESTINE )jointly by the Jewish publishing house"KOHELET" (Ecclesiastes ) and "HAMADPIS" ( The PRINTER). The editor was JACOB FICHMAN . This monthly magazin is known for having agreat influence on Eretz Israeli youth in the 1920. The GRAPHIC DESIGN of theFRONT COVER , Being a LITHOGRAPHY PRINTING , Was made by SAPOZHNIKOV ( Theoriginal RUSSIAN name of the artist ARIEH EL HANANI ) , A GRAPHIC DESIGNER and ARCHITECT of RUSSIAN origin , Moved from RUSSIA toPalestine in the 1920's . No wonder that his design for the FRONTCOVERresembles much the ILLUSTRATIONS of the JEWISH RUSSIAN AVANT GARDEartists such as LISSITZKY, RYBACK , CHAIKOV etc.The HEBREW text , Namely STORIES - LEGENDS - POEMS - SONGS was written byvarious writers . Illustrations by Joseph Israels , Katte Kollwitz and others.Original ILLUSTRATED frontcover .LITHOGRAPHIC printing. Hebrew text. .7 x 9.5".Around76 pp.Illustrated chromo frontispiece.Very good condition. Used. Clean. Tightly bound. Cover somewhat faded. (Pls look at scan for accurate AS IS images ) . Will besent in a protective rigid sealed packaging. AUTHENTICITY : Thisis anORIGINALvintage1926magazine ( Dated ), NOT areproduction or a reprint ,Itholds alife long GUARANTEEforits AUTHENTICITY and ORIGINALITY. PAYMENTS : Payment method accepted: PAYPAL & All credit cards .SHIPPING : Shipp worldwide viaregistered airmail is $ 29 . Will be sent in a special protective rigid sealed package. Handling around 5-10 days after payment. Arieh El Hanani, painter, designer and architect, born 1898, Russia.Designed logos for Palmach, IDF, and in 1934 ''The Flying Camel'' for theLevant Fair, Tel Aviv. Awards and Prizes 1973 Israel Prize for architectureEnvironmental Sculptures Buildings: Weizmann Institute, Rehovot Ohel Yizkor,Yad Vashem, Jerusalem Bar Ilan University, Ramat Gan Environmental Sculpture:1934 ''The Hebrew Worker'', Palmer Square, Tel Aviv***** Arieh El-Hanani (Sapozhnikov) Nationality: Russia***** JacobFichman (Hebrew:יעקב פיכמן)also transliterated as Yakov Fichman (25 November 1881 - 18 May 1958), was anacclaimed Hebrew poet, essayist and literary critic Biography Fichman was born in Balti, Besarabia,Moldava in 1881. He initially emigrated to Ottoman Palestinein 1912, but returned temporarily to Europe and was stranded there until afterWorld War I, not returning to the then Mandate Palestine, later Israel, until 1919.where he died in 1958. Fichman's poetry followed a traditional lyric Romanticstyle. His poetic background is reflected in his works of prose, which weresometimes seen as being nearly works of poetry in themselves. His other workincluded textbooks, articles in periodicals and introductions in literaryanthologies. His critical essays focused heavily on the lives of the authorsrather than on focusing directly on their work, giving the reader a holisticview of the author and the work Awards In 1945, Fichman received the BialikPrize for his book of poetry Peat Sadeh ("A Corner of aField"),[1]published in 1943. In 1953, Fichman again received the Bialik Prize, this timein respect of several of his works.[1]In1957, Fichman was awarded the IsraelPrize, for literature.[2]***** Jacob Fichman , was an acclaimed Hebrewpoet, essayist and literary critic. He was born in 1881 in a small town in southern Russia. He settled in Israelin 1925 and died there in 1958. Fichman's poetry followed a traditional lyric Romantic style. His poetic background reflected in his works of prose that were sometimes seen as being nearly works of poetry in themselves. His other work included textbooks, articles in periodicals and introductions in literary anthologies. His critical essays focused heavily on the lives of the authors rather than on focusing directly on their work, giving the reader a holistic view of the author and the work. His book of poetry Peat Sadeh ("A Corner of a Field"),published in 1943, received the Bialik Prize. His name is also transliterated as Yakov Fichman.*****The Yiddish Book Collection of the Russian Avant-Garde contains bookspublished between the years 1912-1928 by many of the movement’s best knownartists. The items here represent only a portion of Yale's holdings in Yiddishliterature. The Beinecke, in collaboration with the Yale University libraryJudaica Collection, continues to digitize and make Yiddish books availableonline. With the Russian Revolution of 1917, prohibitions on Yiddish printingimposed by the Czarist regime were lifted. Thus, the early post-revolutionaryperiod saw a major flourishing of Yiddish books and journals. The newfreedoms also enabled the development of a new and radically modern art by theRussian avant-garde. Artists such as Mark Chagall, Joseph Chaikov,Issachar Ber Ryback, El (Eliezer) Lisitzsky and others found in thefreewheeling artistic climate of those years an opportunity Jews had neverenjoyed before in Russia: an opportunity to express themselves as bothModernists and as Jews. Their art often focused on the small towns of Russiaand Ukraine where most of them had originated. Their depiction of that milieu,however, was new and different. Jewish art in the early post-revolutionaryyears emerged with the creation of a secular, socialist culture and wasespecially cultivated by the Kultur-Lige, the Jewish social and culturalorganizations of the 1920s and 1930s. One of the founders of the firstKultur-Lige in Kiev in 1918 was Joseph Chaikov, a painter and sculptor whosebooks are represented in the Beinecke’s collection. The Kultur-Lige supported educationfor children and adults in Jewish literature, the theater and the arts. Theorganization sponsored art exhibitions and art classes and also published bookswritten by the Yiddish language’s most accomplished authors and poets andillustrated by artists who in time became trail blazers in modernist circles.This brief flowering of Yiddish secular culture in Russia came to an end in the1920s. As the power of the Soviet state grew under Stalin, officialculture became hostile to the experimental art that the revolution had at firstfacilitated and even encouraged. Many artists left for Berlin, Paris and otherintellectual centers. Those that remained, like El Lisitzky, ceased creatingart with Jewish themes and focused their work on furthering the aims ofCommunism. Tragically, many of them perished in Stalin’s murderouspurges. The Artists Eliezer Lisitzky (1890–1941), better known as ElLisitzky, was a Russian Jewish artist, designer, photographer, teacher,typographer, and architect. He was one of the most important figures of theRussian avant-garde, helping develop Suprematism with his friend and mentor,Kazimir Malevich. He began his career illustrating Yiddish children'sbooks in an effort to promote Jewish culture. In 1921, he became the Russiancultural ambassador in Weimar Germany, working with and influencing importantfigures of the Bauhaus movement. He brought significant innovation and changeto the fields of typography, exhibition design, photomontage, and book design,producing critically respected works and winning international acclaim.However, as he grew more involved with creating art work for the Soviet state,he ceased creating art with Jewish themes. Among the best known Yiddish booksillustrated by the artist is SikhesHulin by the writer and poet Moshe Broderzon and Yingel Tsingle Khvat, achildren’s book of poetry by Mani Leyb. Both works have been completelydigitized and can be found here. Joseph Chaikov (1888-1979) was a Russiansculptor, graphic artist, teacher, and art critic. Born in Kiev, Chaikovstudied in Paris from 1910 to 1913. Returning to Russia in 1914, hebecame active in Jewish art circles and in 1918 was one of the founders of theKultur-Lige in Kiev. Though primarily known as a sculptor, in his early career,he also illustrated Yiddish books, many of them children’s books. In 1921his Yiddish book, Skulptur was published. In it, the artist formulated anavant-garde approach to sculpture and its place in a new Jewish art. Ittoo is in the Beinecke collection. Another of the great artists from thisremarkable period in Yiddish cultural history is Issachar Ber Ryback. Togetherwith Lisistzky, he traveled as a young man in the Russian countryside studyingJewish folk life and art. Their findings made a deep impression on both men asartists and as Jews and folk art remained an aoffering influence on their work.One of Ryback’s better known works is Shtetl, Mayn Khoyever heym; a gedenknish (Shtetl, My destroyed home; A Remembrance), Berlin, 1922.In this book, also in the Beinecke collection, the artist depicts scenes ofJewish life in his shtetl (village) in Ukraine before it was destroyed in thepogroms which followed the end of World War I. Indeed, Shtetl is an elegy to thatworld. David Hofstein’s book of poems, Troyer (Tears), illustrated byMark Chagall also mourns the victims of the pogroms. It was published by theKultur-Lige in Kiev in 1922. Chagall’s art in this book is stark and minimalistin keeping with the grim subject of the poetry. Chagall was a leading force inthe new emerging Yiddish secular art and many of the young modernist artists ofthe time came to study and paint with him in Vitebsk, his hometown. Lisistzkyand Ryback were among them. Chagall, however, parted ways with them when theirartistic styles and goals diverged. Chagall moved to Moscow in 1920 where hebecame involved with the newly created and innovative Moscow Yiddish Theater.Cite as: GeneralModern Collection, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library, YaleUniversity ********KULTUR LIGE : the Kultur Lige was at theheart of the Jewish cultural renaissance in Kiev, providing education andculture to the Jewish population. It had its own press, which publishedteaching material, literary and historical studies, literary journals, andchildren's books such as Troyer. The artists involved included Lissitzky,Ryback, Chagall, and Tchaikov, to name only a few. ******** LISSITZKY :Architect, painter, graphic artist, photographer, designer and arttheoretician. Born in Pochinok village (now in Smolensk Oblast, Russia)Lissitzky studied at Jehuda Pen’s art school in Vitsyebsk (1903), at theTechnische Hochschule in Darmstadt (1909-1914) and at the evacuated to MoscowRiga Polytechinic Institute (1914-1916). His first exhibition was in 1912. InMoscow, Lissitzky belonged to the Jewish Society for the Furthering of the Arts(1917-1918) the Club of Jewish Aesthetics (1917). In 1918-1919 he was a memberof the arts section of the Kultur-Lige in Kyiv and illustrated Yiddish booksfor publishing houses in Kyiv and Petrograd. In 1919 he moved to Vitsyebsk,where he became a supporter of Kazimir Malevich’s suprematism, joined theUNOVIS group (Russian abbreviation for “The Champions of the New Art”) andheaded the faculty of architecture at the People’s Art School. From 1921 to1925 he lived in Berlin, where he establishes contacts with Avant-Gard groupsand published his books About two squares (1922), The Artisms (1922, togetherwith Hans Arp), among others. After return to Moscow, he lectured at the HigherArt and Technical Studios / Higher Art and Technical Institute (1925-1930). In1928 the artist was appointed the chief architect of the Central Park ofCulture and Repose in Moscow. Lissitzky designed numerous Soviet displays andpavillons at international exhibitions. He took part in many exhibitions in theUSSR and beyond its boarders. Lissitzky died in Moscow. *********ALTMAN :Painter, book illustrator and stage designer. Born in Vinnytsia, Altmanstudied at Odessa College of Art from 1903 to 1907, and in Paris at the FreeRussian Academy (1910-1911). The Paris period in the painter’s activity ischaracterized by noticeable influences of Cubism and Modernism. His firstexposition was in 1906. In 1912 Altman moved to Saint Petersburg. In 1915 hebecame one of the founders of the Jewish Society for the Furthering of the Artsand took part in its exhibitions. From 1922 to 1924 he was a member of the ArtSection of Moscow Kultur-Lige. In the 1920s the artist worked as a stagedesigner for the Habima Theater and for the State Jewish Theater (GOSET) inMoscow (1920-1928). In 1928 Altman returned to Paris, where he lived until1936. Up to his return to the USSR, he worked as a designer and a bookillustrator (he illustrated Gogol’s and Scholem Aleichem’s stories, amongothers). Altman died in Leningrad (now Saint Petersburg). ******** RYBACK :Graphic artist, painter, stage designer and art critic. Born in Elisavetgrad(now Kirovohrad), Ryback studied at Kyiv College of Art and at the studios of AlexandraEkster (1911-1916). In 1916, according to the Jewish Historical-EthnographicSociety’s assignment, Ryback and El Lissitzky visited a number of towns inUkraine and Belorus, where they copied the murals in the wooden synagogues andthe carved tombstones on Jewish cemeteries. In 1917 Ryback took part in theExhibition of Jewish Painters and Sculptors in Moscow. Reviewers wrote that hewas one of the “most original and colorful painters”. In Kyiv, Ryback helpedorganizing Kyiv branch of the Jewish Society for Furthering of Arts (1917), ofthe Kultur-Lige Art Section (1918) and of the 1st Jewish Art Exhibition. In1919 Ryback and Boris Aronson published the programmatic essay “Paths of JewishPainting”. In 1920 Ryback after the moved to Moscow, where he lived for about ayear. In 1921 Ryback moved to Berlin, where he became a member of the NovemberGroup and published two albums of graphic works, “Shtettl” (1923) and “JewishTypes of Ukraine” (1924). After his return to the USSR in 1924, he created decorationsfor the Ukrainian State Jewish Theater in Kharkiv and undertook a long journeythrough Jewish kolkhozes of Ukraine and Crimea, resulting in an album titled“In the Jewish Fields of Ukraine”, published in 1926 in Paris. In the beginningof same year Ryback moved to Paris and soon began to play a noticeable role inthe artistic life of the French capital. In the late 1920s – early 1930s he hada number of personal exhibitions in various Parisian galleries. In 1932 a folioof prints of his drawings entitled “Shadows of the Past” were published.Various themes of this published demonstrated Ryback's unrelenting interesttowards Jewish topics. This is confirmed by the ceramic sculptures which Rybackcreated in the last years of his life. *********** ARONSON : Sculptor,graphic artist, pedagogue, art theoretician. Born in Kyiv, Chaikov studied inParis from 1910 to 1913 under N. Aronson, as well as at the School ofDecorative Arts and the School of Liberal Arts. The artist's first exhibitionwas in 1912. In the same year Chaikov and a group of young artists founded the“Mahmadim” association. They also published a journal under the same title. In1913 the artist took part in the Autumn salon in Paris. In 1914 Chaikovreturned to Russia. The artist was an active member of Jewish artisticallyorganizations and associations. In 1918 he became one of the founders of theKultur-Lige Art Section in Kyiv. He illustrated Yiddish books, as well astaught classes on sculpture. In 1921 his Yiddish book, “Sculptore”, waspublished, in which the artist formulated an Avant-Guard approach to sculptureand its place in a system of the new Jewish art. In 1922-1923 the artist workedin Berlin, took part in expositions of Soviet art in Berlin internationalexposition. In 1925 Chaikov became a member of the Association of SovietSculptors (ORS) in Moscow, as well as a member of the artists' association“Four arts”. From 1923 to 1930 he teaches sculpture at Higher Art and TechnicalStudios / Higher Art and Technical Institute. *******CHAIKOV : Sculptor,graphic artist, pedagogue, art theoretician. Born in Kyiv, Chaikov studied inParis from 1910 to 1913 under N. Aronson, as well as at the School ofDecorative Arts and the School of Liberal Arts. The artist's first exhibitionwas in 1912. In the same year Chaikov and a group of young artists founded the“Mahmadim” association. They also published a journal under the same title. In1913 the artist took part in the Autumn salon in Paris. In 1914 Chaikovreturned to Russia. The artist was an active member of Jewish artisticallyorganizations and associations. In 1918 he became one of the founders of theKultur-Lige Art Section in Kyiv. He illustrated Yiddish books, as well astaught classes on sculpture. In 1921 his Yiddish book, “Sculptore”, waspublished, in which the artist formulated an Avant-Guard approach to sculptureand its place in a system of the new Jewish art. In 1922-1923 the artist workedin Berlin, took part in expositions of Soviet art in Berlin internationalexposition. In 1925 Chaikov became a member of the Association of SovietSculptors (ORS) in Moscow, as well as a member of the artists' association“Four arts”. From 1923 to 1930 he teaches sculpture at Higher Art and TechnicalStudios / Higher Art and Technical Institute. ****** The exhibition"Kultur-Lige: Artistic Avant-Garde of 1910-s - 1920s" occured onDecember 20, 2007 - January 25, 2008 in the National Museum of Art of Ukraine.It was dedicated to the activity of artistic section of enlightenment organizationKultur-Lige (Cultural-League), which was active on the territory of Ukraine inthe first half of 20-s – beginning of 30-s of XX century. In the expositionworks of Mark Chagall, Alexander Tyshler, Mark Epstein, Elieser Lisitski, JosefChaikov, Abraham Manevich, Issakhar-Ber Rybak, Boris Aronson, Nathan Altman,Solomon Nikritin and Sarah Shor were represented. 1910- 1920is the period of Jewish life transformation. New Jewish culture was formedthrough dramatic events. Studying and trying to understand a phenomenon ofJewish life and Jewish culture development in Kyiv and Ukraine and also“Kultur-Lige” activities in the context of the epoch are of a crucialimportance. It is necessary for understanding of Jewish history and culture ofentire Eastern Europe. ***** INTRODUCTIONThe term children's literature in this article isapplied to different types of literary works. Up to the end of the 18thcentury it refers to literature whose style and treatment of content is alsosuitable for a young readership (age group 4–14 approx.); in the modern periodit denotes works written specifically for children and compositions by childrenwhose subject matter and theme do not necessarily fall into the adolescentcategory, for example, some of the Holocaust literature by children. CHILDREN'S LITERATURE IN HEBREWWhile until modern times very little literature waswritten for children, there is no doubt that some of the biblical andpost-biblical Hebrew literature was widely read by the young and was part ofthe curriculum in Jewish education. It was only with the rise of interest inchildren's education – the development of pedagogical methodology and childpsychology – that a real children's literature began to be composed. EarlyPeriodBIBLICAL PERIOD (UNTIL 200 B.C.E.)In early times,the first literary writings composed for children might have been proverbs andthe young probably learned by heart short maxims designed to teach them moralnorms and proper behavior. Many of the proverbs were later written down andincorporated into early Hebrew literature: "Hear, my son, the instructionof thy father, and forsake not the teaching of thy mother" (Prov. 1:8).Undoubtedly, the Hebrew child was also an avid listener to the recitations ofitinerant poets and storytellers, or to the legends and parables narrated bythe elders and prophets sitting at the town gates. Biblical tales had aprofound influence on the development of children's literature in general andHebrew literature for children in particular. MISHNAIC-TALMUDICPERIODDuring the mishnaic-talmudic period the scopeof education was enlarged and schools were established. Children learned toread the tales of the Bible: "How does a man learn Torah? First by readingthe scroll and then the book" (Deut. R. 8:3). IsaacBaer *Levinsohn, in his Te'udah be-Yisrael, infers fromthis passage that in those days the teachers had small scrolls containingstories and parables which they used in the education of the children. Legendsand folktales, which had also gained popularity, were taught and the sagespraised the "masters of the legend, who draw man's heart like water"(Ḥag. 14a). The many legends and parables scattered throughout the Talmud andthe Midrash, with their charm and simplicity, attracted children in everygeneration. The numerous collections and versions in which these have appearedbear witness to this phenomenon. MEDIEVALPERIODFrom the beginning of the Diaspora to theHaskalah, Jewish education was almost exclusively religious. The standard booksat home or at school were the Bible, the Talmud, the Midrashim, and prayerbooks. From time to time, however, writers and scholars composed popularliterary works which captivated young readers. Among these were Isaacibn *Sahula's Mashal ha-Kadmoni, a 13th-centurywork written in rhymed prose (*maqama),comprising parables, stories, and tales (Soncino, 1480); *Berechiahb. Natronai ha-Nakdan's Mishlei Shu'alim, written inFrance in the 13th century and containing revised and translatedversions of animal fables (Mantua, 1557); and Jacob ibn Ḥabib's Ein Ya'akov,a collection of legends from the Talmud (Salonika, 1516), of which specialversions for the particular needs of children were published. Despiteconservative teaching methods, many textbooks were published from the beginningof the 16th century, including books on grammar, on the Hebrewlanguage, on letter-writing, and on ethical conduct. They were not specificallyfor children and rarely contained material that had literary value. PetaḥSefat Ever li-Yladim, by Abraham*Cohen (Vienna, 1745), was an exception; it includes parablesand short legends. Side by side with this written literature, there existed anoral children's tradition: stories told by inspired teachers, mothers, andgrandmothers, and the lullabies they sang. Some of these were eventuallyprinted. Modern PeriodThe history of European Jewish-Hebrew and Hebrewliterature, which dates back to 1779, as well as the history of Ereẓ-Israeliand Israeli Hebrew children's literature, is the history of an ideologicallyoriented attempt to build a new literary system and simultaneously generate thefield of its consumers and producers. It is a history characterized by strongideological inclinations as well as delayed developments, until Israelichildren's literature was structured similarly to the European systems which itsought to emulate from its outset. The peculiar circumstances of itsdevelopment in the course of its more than 200-year history involve the specialstatus of the Hebrew language as the language of high culturerather than the native language of its readership, as well as themultiterritorial existence of Hebrew culture, a situation which ended only whenthe center of Hebrew culture was categorically transferred to Ereẓ Israel inthe mid-1920s. EUROPEBooks for Jewish children or passages addressingchildren in texts or manuscripts for adults were written in Europe for as longas Jewish communities were in existence. In fact, one of the first acts of aJewish community in the process of establishing its communal life was thecreation of an educational system for children. Every community facing thechallenge of children's education responded to it, inter alia, by theproduction of texts for children. These texts endeavored to offer practicalroads to the kind of socialization and identity the community wished toconstruct. Every community and every social group offered different solutionsto these two issues: the issue of identity and the issue of socialization.References to Jewish children as consumers of various Hebrew texts are to befound from the Middle Ages onward in various Jewish texts. From the 12thcentury, certain texts, taken mostly from the broader domain of Jewishliterature – the Bible, the Talmud, commentaries on the Talmud, and prayerbooks – were used for educating the young. Several scholars believe that somepassages were included in the Haggadah explicitly for the use ofchildren. In the 16th and 17th centuries, there wereincreasing efforts to write texts specifically for children, mostly in the formof catechisms. However, these became a socially recognized phenomenon onlytowards the end of the 18th century, with the emergence andcrystallization of the modern concept of childhood; as in the case withEuropean children's literatures such a concept was a precondition for thedevelopment of Jewish-Hebrew children's literature. Nevertheless, Jewish-Hebrewchildren's literature required in addition a substantial modification of thebasic views of Jewish society, in particular those concerning children'seducation and attitudes towards the non-Jewish world, in order to make possiblethe development of a distinct and autonomous system of children's books. Onlywhen such a change occurred at the end of the 18th century withinthe framework of the *Haskalah(Jewish Enlightenment) movement in Germany was there culturally room for booksfor Jewish children in the modern sense. The Haskalah movement believed that inorder to shape a new mode of Jewish life and to change the Jewish world viewinto a modern and enlightened one, a total reform in the Jewish educationalsystem must take place, basing the curriculum on a rational and non-religiousfoundation. The curriculum of its new network of schools proposed such a changeand ultimately created a demand for new and different books. This was marked in1779 by the publication of David Friedlaender's Lesebuch fuer juedischeKinder (Berlin 1779, edited with the help of Moses Mendelssohn), for theuse of the Juedische Freischule zu Berlin's students. Its publication signifieda turning point in the history of books for Jewish children, primarily becauseit was the first to declare itself as a Lesebuch (reader) in the modern senseof the notion, and secondly, because it gave expression to the social andcultural maskilic project in which books for children played an important rolein distributing maskilic tenets and ideologies. The Lesebuch represented aunique attempt to translate the ideology of the Haskalah movement intopractical terms, and reflected a unique effort to create a symbiosis betweenthe German and the Jewish cultures, where the similarities between the twocultures were emphasized and points of appropriation were searched for. Thesetwo principles were beyond the need to publish maskilic books for childrenwhich would be distinctly different from the books published in the frameworkof the traditional former system, naturally unequipped to meet Haskalahdemands. As a result, dozens of non-religious books were published during theHaskalah in the German-speaking world. At first the books were written inHebrew and German or in a bilingual format. Hebrew was used mainly in grammarsand Lesebuecher, and to a lesser extent in literary translations and the feworiginal works. Some of the books were bilingual – a side-by-side presentationof Hebrew and German. Towards the beginning of the 19th centurywriting in German became more and more predominant with the exception ofgrammar books, which continued to be published in Hebrew. The maskilic textscould not be based on the traditional models of the Hebrew book and the newsystem had to find models upon which its repertoire could be constructed. Inlight of the close relations between the Haskalah and the German Enlightenment,books of the German Enlightenment were an ideal, if not the most desirable,model for imitation. As a result, dozens of books were written and published,all modeled on the German repertoire of books for children. The new system ofbooks for Jewish children endeavored to follow German children's literatureboth in its stages of development and in the nature of its repertoire. However,in agreement with its internal ideological needs, it adapted itself to anearlier stage of development of German children's literature and not to thatcurrent at the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th.The concrete ways in which Haskalah used the German system was determined byits interpretation of the evolution of the children's literature of the GermanEnlightenment and of its repertoire. This process involved the translation ofconcepts and ideas which was not necessarily in accordance with the ways Germanchildren's literature viewed itself. Furthermore, once Jewish-Hebrew children'sliterature had created a certain image of German children's literature, thisimage was sustained for a long time without really taking heed of the changesand developments taking place within German literature itself. Jewish-Hebrewchildren's literature was characterized by the monolithic nature of its texts,and even in later stages of its development Jewish writers adhered to a limitednumber of textual models and seldom deviated from this fixed repertoire. It wasalmost as though at a given pointin time certain models, texts, and processes of development in the evolution ofGerman children's literature were joined to form a circle, which later becamethe sole frame of reference for the system of books for Jewish children foralmost an entire century. This frame of reference consisted mainly of thetranslation of German Enlightenment texts, or the production of a small numberof original Hebrew texts based on the German. Translated texts were in factprivileged to the extent that, to the best of our knowledge, all books forchildren published by the Haskalah in Germany were either officialtranslations, pseudo-translations, or original texts based on existing Germanmodels. The eligibility of texts for translation wasdetermined by the extent to which they reflected the ideological inclinationsof the Haskalah. Consequently, German texts were translated if they werewritten by German Enlightenment writers, and or if they explicitly conveyedHaskalah values. These principles of selection resulted in an abundance ofmoralistic poems, fables, instructive texts, and geography books, and the totalexclusion of fictional narratives, such as short stories and novels, until themid-19th century. Most popular were biblical stories in accordancewith the preference for Jewish themes Avtalion Biblische Historien,German and Hebrew fables (by Berachiah ha-Nakdan, Magnus Gottfried Lichtwer,Christian Gellert, Albrecht von Haller, and Friedrich von Hagedorn, or ofancient writers like Aesop), para-scientific texts which were characterized byan attempt to introduce new scientific ideas (Baruch Linda's Reshit Limudim,parts 1 and 2, Berlin, Dessau, 1788, which was based on the German Naturgeschichtefuer Kinder, by Georg Christian Raff), or Isaac Satanow's Mishlei Asafin three parts (Berlin, 1789, 1792, 1793), and Meggilat Ḥasidim (Berlin,1802), as well as instructive texts (predominantly translations of Campe: Robinsonder Juengere (Breslau, 1824; Warsaw, 1849; Przemysl, 1872 [5672]; DieEntdeckung von Amerika, (Altona, 1807 [5567]; 1810 cannot be traced; Vilna,1823 [5583]; Breslau, 1824 [5584]; Lemberg, 1846; MerkwürdigeReisebeschreibungen (Lemberg, 1818 [5578]; Yafo, 1912 [5672]; Theophron(Odessa, 1863); and Sittenbuecher fuer Kinder aus gesitteten Staenden(Breslau, 1819; Prague, 1831; Odessa, 1866; Warsaw, 1882)). These textscontinued to be present on the Jewish scene long after the cultural center hadbeen transferred to Eastern Europe. Thus, the books for children transcendedgeographical boundaries and the boundaries between the centers of Hebrew-Jewishculture in Europe. Books for children also transcended the boundaries of theaddressee, and texts written for children addressed adults almost until the endof the 19th century. More often than not, the same texts were publishedfor adults as well as for children. Literary material which was first publishedby various Jewish periodicals was later recycled in the form of readers forchildren. These readers frequently served as reading material for adult Jews,especially of who had no formal education, paving their way into a modernworld. Para-scientific books were read by adults, indeed, sometimes primarilyby adults. In fact, it may be assumed that the label "a book forchildren" was occasionally used more as a cover than as an indication of a"real" addressee. It could function as a cover because the children'ssystem, owing to its peripheral position in culture, stood less chance of beingclosely scrutinized and was therefore often a convenient vehicle for theintroduction of new and hitherto prohibited texts and models. With the transferof the center of Hebrew culture to Eastern Europe (mostly to Poland and Russia)and especially in the framework of the Ḥibbat Zion and Ha-Teḥiyyah movements,the Hebrew language regained its dominance in texts for children. It is inthose years that the basis of Hebrew children's literature was established andfor the first time it formed a system distinct from other systems of Hebrewculture. It was shaped as a system different from other systems of books forJewish children which continued to exist in Europe until World War II (in Yiddish or in the local languages: German,Russian, and Polish). At the end of the 19th century, Hebrewchildren's literature in Europe underwent a change, which stemmed primarilyfrom the establishment of an educational system in Hebrew intended to promotethe national revival. Societies and organizations were founded in Europe withthe aim of disseminating the Zionist idea, national education, and the Hebrew languagethrough educational institutions. The aim of the Safah Berurah (Clear Language)and Ḥovevei Sefat Ever (Lovers of Hebrew) societies was to transform Hebrewfrom a literary language into a spoken language by founding Hebrew schools inwhich Hebrew was spoken and by the publication of children's books. One of itsoutcomes was the establishment of the *Moriahpublishing house. Founded in Odessa in January 1902 by YehoshuaḤana *Rawnitzki, Shin*Ben-Zion (Simḥah Alter Gutmann), and ḤayyimNaḥman *Bialik, Moriah was active primarily in publishing basicbooks, textbooks, and readers for schools. Its first project was thepublication of five volumes of Bible stories (1902 and thereafter), which wasvery successful. In the first year of publication, the first volume was printedin five editions. Its second large project was a compilation of Hebrew legends(aggadot) adapted for youth, in six volumes, because Bialik believedthat legend was at the time the only original literature for children inHebrew. From 1910, Moriah also began publishing literature for young readers ina series called "the Moriah library for youth," which includedoriginal books written mainly by writers for adults, among them *ShalomAleichem, Mendele Mokher Seforim (SholemYankev *Abramovitsh), Sholem*Asch, AaronA. *Kabak, Shin Ben-Zion, M.*Berdyczewski, Eliyahu Miednik, and Meir Siko (Meir*Smilansky). In parallel, Rawnitzki and Bialik publishedtranslated literature printed by the Turgeman publishing house, which wasfounded in 1911 in the framework of Achinoar books and issued translations ofclassic children's books such as The Adventures of Tom Sawyer (Hebrewtitle Me'ora'ot Tom), Pictures from the Life of Youth in America(1910, translated by Israel Ḥayyim Tawiow), Don Quixote (1911,translated by Bialik), Spartacus (1911, translated by Jabotinsky), AThousand and One Nights (1912, translated by David Yellin),Grimm's Fairy Tales (1919, translated by David Frischmann), and others.After the revolution in Russia, the publishing house discontinued itsoperations. The most active publishing house for children inEastern Europe was Tushiyah, headed by Ben-Avigdor. In the course of threeyears, from 1895, Tushiyah issued about 300 booklets in its Library for Youthin the form of two series: "for children" and "for youngadults." Most of these were adaptations of classics by Grimm, Hugo,Gustafsson, Pushkin, Tolstoy, D'Amicis, and Thomas Mayne Reid. A small numberwere original works, such as Ba-Ir u-va-Ya'ar by Judah Steinberg, KolAggadot Yisrael by Israel Benjamin Levner, and Le-Ma'an Aḥai ha-Ketanimby Aharon Liboshitski On the whole, translated literature continued to play animportant role in the development of Jewish-Hebrew children's literature inEastern Europe. Since contacts with the surrounding and neighboring cultureswere strongly endorsed by the men of letters, Jewish-Hebrew children'sliterature tended to translate extensively as well as to use translated textsas models for original writing of Hebrew texts. For instance, Judah Steinberg,the author of the fables in Ba-Ir u-va-Ya'ar (1896, Odessa), whichenjoyed much popularity and a wide readership, was called "the HebrewAndersen," comparing him to a respected foreign example. At the outset,the publication of Hebrew books for Jewish children in Europe in the 19thcentury gained great momentum. It was the first time in the history of modernJewish-Hebrew children's literature that books for children were methodicallypublished, out of a desire to build a complete system with a rich repertoire.Nearly all the big Hebrew publishing houses in Europe were involved inpublishing Hebrew children's literature as well as newspapers and periodicalsfor children in Hebrew. Their motivation was both ideological and economic. Arelatively large group of authors began writing for children. Some of themwrote primarily for children or only for children. A few were particularlyprolific: Judah*Steinberg, Aaron *Liboshitzki, Solomon Berman, JudahLeib *Levin, IsraelḤayyim *Tawiow, Noah Pines, Itzhak Berkman (*Katznelson),and IsraelBenjamin *Levner, the last writing more than 25 books, some ofwhich became bestsellers. The flourishing publishing activity early in thecentury ended in a crisis. The number of publishing houses engaged in publishingchildren's books was greater than the demand of the market, and some of thepublishers had to slow down or totally discontinue their activity. Someattempts were made in Warsaw to found publishing houses for children's books,such as Barkai and Ophir, but they did not succeed. In 1911, Ben-Avigdorattempted to cope with the crisis by establishing a federation of publishinghouses called Central, which also included Shrebrek, Progress, and Ha-Shaḥar.Central later merged with the Sifrut publishing house. After World War I, the publishing house recovered and remained inoperation as a publisher of readers and books for children and young adultsalmost until World War II. The establishment ofthe *Tarbuteducational system in 1922, which operated in the interwar period in Poland,Romania, the Baltic states, and Russia in 200 elementary schools andkindergartens, secondary schools, and teachers' seminaries, created the needfor the continuation of the existence of Hebrew children's literature inEurope, even after the center of Hebrew literature in Europe had declined. Fora short period, Tarbut was successful because of the awakening of nationalconsciousness. Hebrew became a spoken language in hundreds of schools, and anattempt was made to maintain the publication of Hebrew books at any cost, aswell as to establish new publishing houses to replace those that had closeddown or curtailed their activity during the war. Most of these publishinghouses, like Senunit (1919); the Temarim illustrated library (1920);Bibliotheka Universalit (1919–20), and Sifriyat ha-Ḥinukh he-Ḥadash (1928) weresupported by various educational institutions but received their major supportfrom Tarbut. As long as a Hebrew school system existed in Europe, there was ajustification for maintaining literature in Hebrew for Jewish children, andbooks in Hebrew continued to come out almost until the outbreak of World War II. Nevertheless, despite the comprehensiveeducational project of Tarbut, Hebrew children's literature was still writtenin most cases for children whose mother tongue was not Hebrew. Even theoverwhelming success of Abvraham*Mapu's Ahavat Zion 1853, Vilna) which continued to be abest seller among young and old until the end of the 19th century,could not change the fact that it never became a "native literature."This resulted in a gap between the insufficient demand, on the one hand, andthe superfluous supply, on the other, which made the system unstable andfragile and caused recurrent economic crises. Writers for children in EasternEurope continued to regard Hebrew children's literature as an educational tooland consequently wrote texts with a didactic orientation. At this stage, Hebrewchildren's literature still tolerated only one criterion for the rejection oracceptance of texts for children: the extent of their conformity to didacticand/or ideological tenets. As a result of the circumstances of its existence,Hebrew children's literature in Europe maintained its superficial existence andwas unable to release itself from the ideological frameworks which determinedits character. The ideological hegemony resulted in the system's remainingincomplete for a considerable period, lacking some of the sub-systems existingin other European children's literatures at the time. In fact, Hebrewchildren's literature managed to liberate itself from the exclusive hegemony ofideology only much later in Ereẓ Israel and mainly after the foundation of thestate of Israel, where Hebrew children's literature as a "nativeliterature" developed into a heterogeneous and diversified system. EREẒ ISRAEL AND THE STATE OF ISRAELThe case of Hebrew children's literature in EreẓIsrael was completely different. Already in the late 1880s, several decadesbefore the establishment of a system of adult literature, children's literaturebegan to develop in Ereẓ Israel. This means that the first literary system thatdeveloped in Ereẓ Israel was that of books for children, though it was stabilizedonly after the literary center had definitely been transferred to Ereẓ Israel,i.e., in the mid-1920s. The first texts for children wereeducational texts – readers and textbooks, such as Eliezer*Ben-Yehuda's geography book 1813 le-Ḥurban Mikdashenu, 5643(1883), David*Yellin and Ben-Yehuda's first reader for children, Mikrale-Yaldei benei Yisrael, 5647 (1887), which included about 20 revisedtalmudic legends and parables of the sages in simple Hebrew; Yehudah Grasovski,Ḥayyim Ẓifrin, and David Yudelevitch's Bet ha-Sefer li-Venei Yisrael,5651 (1891); Ben-Yehuda's Kiẓẓur Divrei ha-Yamim li-Venei Yisrael, 5652(1892), and Mordekhai Lubman's Siḥot bi-Yediot ha-Teva, 5652 (1892).Later they were followed by some literary texts for leisure which included stories,poems, fables, legends, and moral tales, such as Grazovski and Arye Horovitz'sseries Seḥiyat ha-Ḥemdah le-Yaldei Benei Yisrael (eight translatedbooklets), 5652 (1892), and Grazovski, Ẓifrin and Yudelevitch's Sha'ashuimYom Yom, 5652 (1892). But when the system of Hebrew education adopted themethod of teaching "Hebrew in Hebrew" the scraps could not satisfythe appetite of a lion. Once this method was adopted, the Hebrew language wasmuch more powerfully disseminated, as the schools became the major agents ofits distribution. In the process of the creation of Hebrew as the language ofthe culture of the Yishuv, children were viewed as a vehicle for distributingthe new Hebrew culture and their teachers as the main soldiers in an armyparticipating in this war. Ben-Yehuda, as well as major political figures suchas Menahem*Ussishkin and Ze'ev*Jabotinsky spoke explicitly about the decisive role of thechildren and their educators in this national project of creating a new secularHebrew culture. Teaching in Hebrew in a Hebrew environment created for thefirst time in the history of Hebrew children's literature a genuine readership.This readership generated an urgent and immediate need for adequate texts forchildren in all the fields of child culture. Fulfilling the demand was not aneasy task. The relation between demand and supply was just the opposite of theone prevalent in Europe. Memoirs of teachers relate time and again howdifficult it was to find in Ereẓ Israel adequate books for children. In fact,until the 1920s, the publishing center of Hebrew children's literature wasstill in Europe and the needs of the system in Palestine were largely filledthrough books published in Europe. Furthermore, books by writers who hadalready settled in Ereẓ Israel at the end of the 19th century andthe beginning of the 20th were published mainly in Warsaw, Odessa,and to some extent Cracow, even if they were first published in Jerusalem. Forexample, Ze'ev Jawitz's book Tal Yaldut intended for the children ofPalestine, was published in Vilna in 1897 and was also distributed for the useof Hebrew schools in Eastern Europe. Kiẓẓur Divrei ha-Yamim li-Venei Yisraelbe-Shivtam al Admatam (Jerusalem, 1892) by Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, was alsopublished in Vilna in 1906. Yehuda Grazovski's reader, Bet Sefer Ivri(Jerusalem, 1895–97), was published in Warsaw in 1912. Ze'ev Jawitz's Divreiha-Yamim (Jerusalem, 1890) was published in an expanded edition in Warsawin 1893. Yehudah Grazovski's Ḥanukkah was published in Odessa (1892) andthen in Warsaw (1920) as well as his Mi-Sippurei Anderson (Odessa,1893); Hemdah*Ben-Yehudah's Me-Hayyei ha-Yeladim be-Ereẓ Yisrael waspublished in Warsaw (1899), as well as her Bimei ha-Baẓẓir (Cracow,1906). KadishLeib (Yehudah) *Silman's Ha-Ḥashmonayim ha-Ketanim waspublished in Warsaw (1911). However, already in the early 1920s books writtenand published in Europe were rejected as being inadequate for children growingup in Ereẓ Israel. European Hebrew children's literature, whose circumstancesof development were drastically different from those of Ereẓ Israel, could notserve anymore as a reservoir of models and texts. Unlike the case of Hebrewliterature for adults, where the transfer to Ereẓ Israel implied continuity interms of the repertoire of the system, Hebrew children's literature, facing newneeds, had to orient its development to new and different grounds. During thefirst three decades of the 20th century, the creation of achildren's culture in Ereẓ Israel demanded the construction from scratch of allits components, ranging from children's songs to fairy tales, stories, novels,and non-fiction prose, from schoolbooks to Hanukkah, Tu Bi-Shevat, and Passoverpoems as well as to the ceremonies in schools and kindergartens. The scarcityof schoolbooks overshadowed any other deficiencies of the child culture andconsequently the needs and demands of the educational system enjoyed firstpriority. The Kohelet publishing house, established by the Teachers Union inEreẓ Israel in 5665 (1905), played a major role in this undertaking. Koheletconcentrated at first on supplementing the most urgent needs of the educationalsystem and thus published very few literary texts for leisure. It publishedschoolbooks, a geographical lexicon, and a zoology book and after World War I began issuing literary texts in the series Oẓarha-Talmid. Given however, the necessity to create a child culture fromscratch, schoolbooks also included original poems and stories and served asreading material for leisure. During World War I hardly any books for children were published, except forfew that were issued in the framework of the project of the *PalestineOffice of the Zionist Organization. The Palestine Office createda committee at the beginning of the war to produce a comprehensive program forthe translation of masterpieces of world literature, among which severalchildren's books were included. Two other minor projects were responsible forthe publication of several booklets: Ha-Mashtelah, which was established inJerusalem in 1915 and issued five booklets and Sifriyah Ketanah li-Yeladim,which was established in Jaffa in 1916 and issued 55 booklets. Most of theschoolbooks published between 1905 and 1923 were written by a new group ofteachers, among whom the three teachers of the Girls' School in Jaffa were themost prominent: Mordekhai Ezraḥi (Krishevsky), Yosef Azaryahu(Ozarkovski), and Yeḥi'el Yeḥi'eli (Jochelchik). Along with purely educationalconsiderations, the activities of the group were also – and perhaps mainly –guided by national considerations and the desire to create a new type of Jew.To this end, they attempted to compile a repertoire for everyday behavior andrenovated ceremonies to replace the traditional religious ceremonies. In thisframework they published several schoolbooks and readers, partially written bythem and partially taken from other sources. One of their readers – Sifrenu(1919–21) – became especially widespread. The Sifrenu series was widelyacclaimed, published in approximately 20 editions, and used by most of theHebrew schools throughout the country; *aslate as 1935 a revised version entitled Karmenu was still beingpublished. These texts endeavored to present an"autochthonic Hebrew child" by the use of several devices, amongwhich the most conspicuous were representation of the "native" way ofspeaking (through the introduction of many dialogues) and repeated descriptionsof various local settings in Ereẓ Israel. The texts offered clear-cutopposition between the child of Ereẓ Israel and that of the Diaspora,emphasizing the outdoor life of a child in Ereẓ Israel as compared with theindoor settings of the child of the Diaspora. The Hebrew child was presented asfree, even naughty, self-confident and attached to the Land of Israel, engagedin new activities such as excursions to places linked to the ancient history of"the people of Israel" and singing the "songs of Zion." Thetextual plots usually consisted of a juxtaposition of events of ancient(biblical) history and current events in Ereẓ Israel. In the 1930s theaddressee of Hebrew children's literature was already a child for whom Hebrewwas a native language, and very often his only language. Hebrew children'sliterature was no longer seen in the 1930s as a means of disseminating theHebrew language, but it was still regarded as a means of disseminating nationalvalues and cultivating national yearnings as well as promoting ideologicaltenets. The leadership of the Yishuv coopted Hebrew children's literature as amajor vehicle for educating the young and molding their character. Most writersfor children were teachers and educators who, with the exception of LevinKipnis, were politically defined and continued writing along the same lines astheir predecessors. Most prominent among them were Eliezer Smoly, Ẓevi Livneh(Liberman), and Bracha Habas. The framework of writing for children wasindoctrinarian, as can be seen, for example, in the works of Bracha Habas. Oneof the most prominent figures in the field of children's literature—an editorand author at the *Histadrut'sYouth Center, which had been founded by Berl*Katznelson—and publishing regularly as a journalist for Davarand Davar li-Yeladim, Bracha Habas presented in her texts the narrativeof an evolving nation, in which the Jewish community was fighting for its lifeand homeland. It was characterized by an attempt to present an ideal of theHebrew individual consisting of his perfect conduct and his authentic language.The books also constructed national heroes and offered descriptions of thelandscape of Ereẓ Israel, as well as encouraging aliyah (immigration toEreẓ Israel). In terms of their values these writings promoted the agenda ofthe Zionist mainstream: self-sacrifice for the sake of the state in-the-making,national pride, love of the soil, agriculture work, and life in a collective.This was true even for non-recruited literature, such as Yemimah*Tshernowitch-Avidar's Shemona be-Ikevot Eḥad and NaḥumGutman's Ha-Ḥofesh ha-Gadol, o Ta'alumot ha-Argazim. It was even truefor lullabies, such as Shir Eres by Emmanuel Harussi, which reads:"The granary of Tel Yosef is set on fire/ smoke also comes out of BetAlpha/ but you should not cry anymore/ lay down, nap and sleep" However,not all writers were required to comply with ideological demands, certainly notthe most prestigious writers for adults such as Ḥayyim Naḥman Bialik, Saul*Tchernichowsky, Zalman*Shneour, Jacob*Fichmann, and Devorah*Baron, who regarded their writing for children as a nationaltask, an indispensable component of the creation of the new nation. Theinvolvement of prestigious writers for adults in the writing for childrencontinued to characterize Hebrew children's literature in the 1930s and 1940s,though they did not necessarily regard their writing for children as servingideological aims. The texts of prominent modernistic poets such as Abraham*Shlonsky, Nathan*Alterman, and Lea*Goldberg later became classics of Hebrew children's literature.At the same time a specific group of professional writers for children began toemerge. This process of differentiation, whose first buds can be traced back tothe late 1930s, was fully manifested in the 1950s with writers such as YemimahTshernowitch-Avidar, Yaakov*Churgin, Anda*Amir-Pinkerfeld, Miriam*Yalan-Stekelis, Fania*Bergstein, and Aharon Ze'ev. One of the means of filling outthe system as quickly as possible and approximating the conditions of Europeanculture was by translation, which was reinforced by the wish to prove that allthe child's educational and cultural needs could indeed be supplied in Hebrew.This made the translation of the so-called children's classics a priority. Inlight of the almost monolithic character of the original texts, the variety ofthe repertoire was achieved through translation. Already before World War I several translations of books for children hadbeen published: Jules Verne's Seviv ha-Areẓ bi-Shemonim Yom (Aroundthe World in 80 Days, translated by Ben-Yehuda, 5661 (1901)) and KarlGutzkow's Uriel Akosta, translated by the teachers of the girls' schoolin Jaffa, Jerusalem, 1906). Later on some publishers began specializing intranslated literature for children. Most prominent among them was Omanut, whichpublished translated literature almost exclusively (in 1932, for example,Omanut published 30 translated books and one original). Until 1944, when it wasclosed down, Omanut published almost 500 translated books from among the bestknown classics, mostly translations from German and Russian. In the 1940s and1950s Am Oved and Sifriyat ha-Po'alim concentrated on publishing translatedliterature. The books published by Sifriyat ha-Po'alim gave expression to itsworldview. Most of them were translated from the Russian and were deeply immersed inSoviet culture. The Shaḥrut series of Am Oved, on the other hand, concentratedon translations of classics such as Yotam Ha-Kasam and Ziknei Betha-Sefer be-Vilbay, or books with Jewish themes, such as George Eliot's. Infact, several publishers adopted the criterion of Jewish themes as determiningtheir editorial selection. For instance, in the framework of the Dorot seriesof the Yizrael publishing house were published the 12 volumes of Zikhronotle-Vet David as well as adaptations of Meir Lehmann, Ludwig Philippson,George Eliot, and Benjamin d'Israeli During the 1940s thenarratives characterizing texts for children were in several respects acontinuation of the previous ones: Hebrew children's literature continued to bean engaged literature, subjugated to ideological tenets. Ereẓ Israel was stillpresented as the antithesis of the Diaspora. The characterization of theprotagonists remained the same: assertive children, independent, lovers ofnature, and native speakers of Hebrew. Special place was given to historicalheroes of the near or ancient past, like Judah Maccabee, Joseph Trumpeldor, andAlexander Zeid, who shared similar traits: courageous, motivated by their lovefor their country, working its soil, honest and moral, and prepared to give theirlives in defense of its people and its land. The archetypal protagonist wasinvolved in events in which enemies were endangering the land and people ofIsrael and injuring their national pride. Defending the people and the land,the protagonists restore their dignity and often die heroic deaths. Much placecontinued to be given to the descriptions of Ereẓ Israeli holidays andfestivals which replaced the traditional ceremonies of the Diaspora. Alsosimilar was the preference of the agricultural settlement to the city and thelengthy descriptions of the landscape and of the nature. In terms of theirlocation, the stories were almost always set in a kibbutz or moshav. Even whenthe protagonist lived in the city, the story was to take place in an agriculturalsettlement. The message of the titles was more often than not of an ideologicalnature (Smoly's Ha-Na'ar Amiẓ ha-Lev ("The Brave-HeartedBoy"), Halperin's Yaldei ha-Sadeh ("Children of theField")). The child protagonist is prepared to take chances, even riskinghis own life, but his relations with the adult world are fairly harmonious,with adults and children often replacing each other. Despite the harmoniousrelations, the presentation of the family began to change in the 1940s. Theparents were not represented anymore as the center of the child's life, nor asa source of authority. The child was represented as primarily attached to theLand of Israel and to nature, not to his parents. In many texts the childrenleft home at an early age to fulfill pioneering missions and join a group(which thus replaces their family). Another change concerned the decline of theuniversal socialist ideology whose place was taken by the national ideology.The most decisive change in the narrative of the 1940s resulted, however, fromthe need to relate to the Holocaust as well as to the preparations for theproclamation of the State of Israel. Three narratives were consequentlydeveloped: the narrative of the ties to European Jewry in times of affliction(and afterwards the narrative of the Holocaust), the "military"narrative, and the narrative of the lessons that should be drawn from theHolocaust. The negation of the Diaspora typical of children's literature of the1930s was replaced by the story of European Jewry in distress. It was marked byconcern for and identification with their plight. Other stories dealt with theimmigration of refugee children, describing their difficult exodus when leavingthe dreadful conditions of Europe. Here the narrative of survival immigrationreplaced the previous narrative of ideological immigration in a clear attemptto change the readers' attitude towards survival immigration. From the end of1942 the story of children from Ereẓ Israel rallying to help Jewish children inthe Diaspora evolved (for example, Yemimah Tshernowitch-Avidar and Mira Lobe's SheneiRe'im Yaẓu la-Derekh (1950)), as well as of stories told by a grandfatherto his grandson in Ereẓ Israel, in which he nostalgically describes hischildhood in the Diaspora. The stories depicted the sense of a shared fate, andeven alluded to the helplessness of the Yishuv and its inability to providereal assistance to Diaspora Jews in distress. The literature for very youngchildren generally kept silent about the events in Europe, though sometimes itincorporated two levels of reading: the text for the very young was accompaniedby a tragic level addressing the adult reading the texts to children. In fact,the children's literature of the 1940s was the first to provide a means fortelling a story of the Holocaust that was not being told in any otherdiscourse. From this standpoint children's literature told a unique Holocauststory, colored by a sense of remorse about the negation of the Diaspora,dominant in the literary and educational discourse prior to World War II. Alongside the Holocaust narrative there evolvedin the early years of World War II the "military" narrative which told the storyof youths (sometimes children) in Ereẓ Israel fighting the enemy in defense ofthe homeland. At its peak, particularly during the years of the anti-Britishstruggle, it described children as daring and irreplaceable fighters. At firstthe war was a central theme in literature for very young children and wasabsent in the literature for older children. Latter most of the"military" literature addressed older children. The archetypal storywas that of a close-knit group of children described as aquasi-"military" unit, who, instead of using their skill asdetectives to solve a mystery (as was often the case with young detectives ofWestern literature), fought against an enemy threatening to conquer theircountry. They also described the fighting ability of the young Hebrewcollective as representing an unparalleled "military" force. Severalstories began to point directly to the British as the enemy of the Zionistendeavor. The Arabs of Palestine were also marked as the national enemy,against whom war was inevitable. The portrayal of an enemy who was present"here and now" turnedthe "military" narrative into a recruitment story. For the first timein the history of Hebrew children's literature, a present-day conflict wasdepicted in which children would play a unique and central role. Translatedliterature continued to be published. Owing to the strong link with the SovietUnion and Russian culture, most of the texts were translated from Russian or bythe use of Russian literature as a mediating system. Some were appropriated bythe Hebrew system almost as original. This was the case of Ha-Mefuzar mi-KefarAzar 1943) translated by Lea Goldberg, or Kornei Chukovsky's Limpopo(1943) and Barmalai (1946) translated by Natan Alterman. Writingoriginal popular children's literature, such as detective stories, was stilltabooed in the 1940s, unless they were immersed in an ideology, which praisedthe military abilities of the younger generation. Two typical examples areYemimah Tshernowitch-Avidar's best seller Shemona be-Ikevot Eḥad (1945)which told the story of a group of eight kibbutz children who managed tocapture a dangerous German spy during World War II and Naḥum Gutman's Ha-Ḥofesh ha-Gadol, o Ta'alumatha-Argazim 1946), which told the story of two youths who endanger theirlives while trying to save an important shipment needed by the Jewish Yishuvunder Turkish rule. Towards the end of the World War II there evolved the narrative of the "nationallesson" which combined the Holocaust and the "military"narratives into a new narrative – that of revolt and revenge of Jewish Diasporachildren. This new narrative had its roots in the Warsaw ghetto revolt (April1943) which left a mark on the narrative of the Yishuv. This narrative, oftenaccompanied by chilling descriptions of violence, coupled the Holocaust to theheroic fighting of the few against the many. Its stories described childrenfrom "there" avenging family members who had been murdered; it alsoemphasized the generational aspect of the revenge and the ethos of anunderground war waged by youngsters. The story of integrating the child-survivorinto the society of children in the Yishuv began to take shape. Its protagonistwas an orphaned child-refugee who arrives in Ereẓ Israel. Physically andmentally broken, he is integrated into a group of children within a shortperiod of time, and forgets his traumatic past. The "correct" mode ofabsorption illustrated by this narrative took on the character of a"cure." The child was often adopted by a family or a Hebrewcollective and his adoption was accompanied by a systematic effort to erase thememory of the horrors of the Holocaust. The survivor's successful integrationwas depicted as a happy ending. The large number of texts that presented suchmodes of integration indicates that very many writers were party to an effortto assist in the absorption process. It was only in the 1970s that the memoryof the survivors was called upon and no longer required to be suppressed.During the 1950s the Holocaust narrative was weakening whereas the"military" combined with the "national lesson" becamedominant, especially in popular children's literature which gradually andcautiously was gaining some legitimacy, but still drew much fire. When Yigal*Mossinsohn began publishing in 1949 Hasambah – the firstseries of original popular literature – he was vehemently attacked forcorrupting the souls of the children of Israel, and this despite theideological underpinning of the series. The Hasambah series, firstpublished by the children's magazine Mishmar li-Yeladim, told the storyof a group of children who participated in many adventures and was deeplyrooted in the Zionist narrative and values. Hence, from the mid-1950s, Hebrewchildren's literature was no longer exclusively the product of an ideologicalmotivating force. More emphasis was then put on the aesthetic and psychologicalfeatures of the texts for children. Aspects of life which were previouslyignored were gradually introduced in the 1960s. Themes which had been taboowere now placed on the literary stage: divorce, death, sex, protagonists ofsocial groups previously ignored (such as women or young girls), urban life,various ethnic groups. The change can be discerned not only in terms of themebut in the poetics of the texts as well, driven by the wish to introduce thechild's point of view. In several texts the authoritative point of view of anarrator was replaced by the child's point of view or by the introduction ofmore than one point of view. Since the 1950s, with an acceleration of theprocess in the 1960s, children's literature has undergone a process ofautonomization and normalization. From a literature bearing the ideologicalburden of the Zionist project, regarding itself as one of its major agents, itbecame similar to Western children's literature. This was evident in both theprofessionalization of children's literature – a clear distinction was madebetween literature for adults and literature for children – and thespecialization of several publishing houses in children's literature. Almostall large publishing houses were involved in publishing for children and mostof them appointed editors specifically for children's literature. The economicbasis of children's literature became much more solid, several books forchildren became bestsellers, and several writers for children made their livingfrom writing (Devorah Omer, Galila Ron-Feder) even before this was the casewith writers for adults (*Oz,*Grossman).The professional differentiation coordinated with gender differentiation – mostof the professional writers for children were women. At the same time almostall known writers for adults (with the exception of Yehoshua*Kenaz) wrote at least one book for children, though onlyGrossman and *Shalevdid it systematically. The status of the writer for children was enhanced bythe award in 1978 of the highly prestigious Israel Prize to three authors inrecognition of their life's work in children's literature (Nahum Gutman, AndaAmir, and Levin Kipnis). The standard of visual presentation of books forchildren progressed enormously and a new generation of illustrators forchildren became an integral part of the scene. Age differentiation became moreand more distinct: books for infants, books for toddlers, books forpreschoolers, books for the first grades, books for youth. Since the 1970s,Hebrew children's literature has experienced a tremendous boom. Publishingpolicy, even of the publishing houses of the labor parties, was now placed on acommercial basis in its broadest sense. That is to say, books were chosen forpublication either because they were believed to be valuable, or saleable, orboth. The system of children's literature has managed to become a completesystem consisting both of popular and high literature. The number of publishedbooks and the number of copies sold has increased considerably. No fewer than480 children's books were published in 1976, of which 194 were new titles and286 were reprints. The number of books published more than doubled between1965/6 and 1979/80, and almost tripled in the 20 years between 1965/6 and 1986The Central Bureau of Statistics does not have data for books published after1996. However, according to the data of the Jewish National and UniversityLibrary (which is not necessarily in accordance with the data of the CentralBureau of Statistics), they received 463 children books in 1996 (7.7%), 518 in1997 (7.8%), 450 in 1998 (7.2%), and 474 in 1999 (8%). Since then thepercentage of children's books has declined: 370 in 2001 (5.3%), 317 in 2002(4.5%), 346 in 2003 (4.1%), and 426 in 2004 (5.5%). The ulta-Orthodox world didnot remain indifferent to the boom in Hebrew children's literature. Probably inan effort to compete with it, ulltra-Orthodox writers, especially womenwriters, began writing in mass for children; among them most prominent isYokheved Sachs. To a lesser extent was the effort to write books for thechildren of the settlers in the occupied territories (for instance EmunahElon), probably in an attempt to promote a different value system from the oneprevalent in Hebrew children's literature since the 1970s. Poetry for childrenwas allotted considerable space and new writers began writing poetry forchildren, introducing new models which emphasized the child's point of view andits individual character (Adulah, Datyah Ben-Dor, Hagit Benziman, ShlomitCohen-Assif, Edna Kremer, Haya Shenhav and Miric Senir). Yehudah Atlas's Ve-ha-Yeledha-Zeh hu Ani (1977) served as a model for the presentation of the child asa specific unique individual rather than a stereotyped "ẓabar."In addition, the writing of lyric poetry for children developed (Tirzah Atarand Nurit Zarchi), satirical poetry (Efrayim Sidon), philosophical poetry(Mikhal Senunit), or ironical poetry (Meir Shalev). Writing of prose for thevery young also increased: some of it was based on a realistic model (NiraHarel, Miriam Roth), others on a didactic model (Alona Frankel), fantasy (HayaShenhav), or prose challenging the family role model (Meir Shalev and EtgarKeret). The range of topics covered by children's literature expanded greatlyboth as a result of the "normalization" of the system and because ofits nexus with European and American children's literatures, which wereundergoing a similar process. Instead of the earlier, almost exclusive focus onrealistic fiction about the history of the Jewish people and the history andthe life of the people of Israel the door was opened to themes from the privatesphere which had previously been shunned, such as first love, friendship,parent-child relations, children's adventures, death in war, death of familymembers, divorce, and family crisis in general. Even when describing the groupor the community the books concentrated on the child's point of view, his fearsand his wishes. For instance, Raya Harnik's, Aḥi Aḥi (1993), Uri Orlev'sḤayat ha-Ḥoshekh (1967) and Ya'akov Shavit's Nimrod Kelev Ẓayid(1987) deal with a child's response to the death of a father or brother. Otherwriters depict conflicts between the individual and society, notably NuritZarchi's Yaldat Ḥuẓ (1978), Ofrah Gelbart-Avni's Kirotshe-lo Ro'im(1992), Roni Givati's Mishalot Ḥoref (1993), Yisrael Lerman's Ha-Yeledmi-Gedat ha-Naḥal (1992), and Yona Tepper's David Ḥeẓi Ḥeẓi (1990).Some of the prose writing for older children continued to be realistic fictionabout the history and life of the Yishuv in the pre-State period, and thehistory of the Jewish people. Merkaz Shazar and Yad Ben-Zvi, usually notinvolved in publishing for children, initiated the publication of historicalnovels, presumably due to the success of several historical novels as majoragents in the construction of past images, notably Devorah Omer's Ha-Bekhorle-Vet Avi (1967) and Sarah, Gibborat Nili (1969). Among theprominent authors to publish such works were Dorit Orgad (Ha-Ḥatufim li-Ẓevaha-Ẓar, 1986), Devorah Omer (Pitom be-Emẓa ha-Ḥayyim, 1984, and AhavatItamar, 2001), and Esther Streit-Wurzel (Ha-Beriḥah, 1969). Thesenovels did not introduce the critical historical narrative which became popularin both historiographical and prose writing for adults. Except for DaniellaCarmi, there was no attempt to shed light on the "other," nor towrite critically about the Zionist project. On the other hand, unlike previoushistorical novels written during the pre-State period (like Smoly's), writersdid not hesitate to explore the shortcomings of their protagonists and did notendeavor to imbue the child with national values of heroism. The model of theZionist adventure narrative of popular literature was replaced by an adventuremodel based on the child's world. Especially popular were books by Semadar Shirand the series Jinji by Galila Ron-Feder. Like any other popularliterature the stories are based on a certain repetitive pattern. They arehighly respected in terms of their characters, their role division, the worlddescribed, and the development of the plot. The narrative of the Holocaustchanged and was not limited to the survivor generation but to the secondgeneration as well. The books relate the dreadful events of the Holocaust combinedwith stories of survival. The narrative is of a documentary nature or betweenrealism and fantasy, for instance, Uri Orlev's, Ha-I bi-Reḥov ha-Ẓipporim(The Island on Bird Street, 1981), winner of the Andersen Prize; TamarBergman's Ha-Yeled mi-Sham (1983); Ami Gedalia's Ha-Ed ha-Aharon(1989); Ruth Ilan-Porath's Kurt Aḥi (1983); Rivka Keren's Kayiẓ Aẓuv,Kayiẓ Me'ushar (1986); Irena Liebman's Sus Eẓ u-Shemo Zariz( 1988);and Ruth Almog's Ha-Massa Sheli im Aleks (1999). The fields of picturebooks and books for the very young have changed significantly in terms of thedesign and graphics of books. A new generation of artists followed Nahum Gutmanand Aryeh Navon, who illustrated several books for children. Most prominentamong them were Orah Eyal, Ora Eitan, Alona Frankel, Hilah Havkin, Avner Katz,Danny Kerman, Ruth Modan, and Ruth Tsarefati. Translations and re-translationsof children's classics (most of them dating back to the end of the 19thand the beginning of the 20th centuries) continued to predominate.The most important of these appeared in the framework of the Kitriseries by the Keter publishing house, which published new translations of,among others, Joanna Spyri's Heidi, George Sand's La Petite Fadette,Harriet Beecher Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin, Edmondo de Amicis's Cuore,Waldemar Bonsels's Die Biene Maja und Ihre Abenteuer, Jules Verne's MichelStrogoff, Henryk Sienkiewicz's Wpustyni i w puszczy ("In Desertand Wilderness"), Mark Twain's The Prince and The Pauper, VictorHugo's Les Miserables, R.L. Stevenson's Treasure Island, CharlesKingsley's The Water-Babies, Rudyard Kipling's The Jungle Book,Alexander Dumas's La Tulipe Noir, Alphonse Daudet's Tartarin Sur LesAlpes, and L.M. Montgomery's The Foundling. The Marganitseries by the Zemora publishing house specialized in translations of Americanand European classics of the 20th century, such as several of RoaldDahl's books (Matilda and Danny the Champion of the World), LauraIngalls Wilder's Little House on the Prairie, Anna Sewell's BlackBeauty, Joel Chandler Harris' Uncle Remus, Eleanor H. Porter's Pollyanna,Edith Nesbit's The Railway Children, Ferenc Molnar's A Palutcai Fiuk,Robert Lawson's Rabbit Hill, and Louise Fitzhugh's Harriet the Spy.In addition, popular and successful children's literature, published mainly inthe United States and England, began to be regularly translated into Hebrew,often within months following publication of the original. In addition to the HarryPotter series, works of well known writers such as Eric Hill (the English Spotseries) or the Olivia books by the American Ian Falconer have also beentranslated almost immediately after they appeared. Hebrew children's literaturehas undergone tremendous changes over the last 200 years. Starting as aliterature with virtually no natural reading public, it has acquired a largeand stable reading public. Although it was believed to serve as a tool forother purposes, it managed to liberate itself from ideological and didacticconstraints, and to emerge as a full and "normal" system, having a"normal" reading public and functioning on the same basis as anyother national literature in the West.*****Arieh El-Hanani, born Sapozhnikov[1][2][3] (1898–1985) was an Israel Prize winner in the field of architecture for his "contribution to shaping Israeli culture."His Russian and Hebrew names have also been transliterated and spelled as Arie or Aryeh, Sapoznikov, Elhanani, etc.El-Hanani at the Levant Fair, 1930sContents1 Early life in Russia1.1 Education1.2 Avant-garde artist2 Mandate Palestine and Israel2.1 Stage design2.2 Trade fair design2.3 Architecture2.4 Other design work3 Awards - both received and created in his name4 Personal life5 External links6 ReferencesEarly life in RussiaEl-Hanani was born in 1898 in Poltava, Russian Empire (today capital of the Poltava Oblast in central Ukraine), to as one of the five children of Elhanan (Afanasi) Sapozhnikov and Chava Liva Sapozhnikov(a).[4][5] His siblings were Mania Sapozhnikov, Zvi (Grisha) Elhanani, Avraham Elhanani, and Meir (Misha) Elhanani.[4]EducationBetween 1913 and 1917, Elhanani completed a course in architecture at the Kiev School of Art and Architecture.[6]Avant-garde artistIn 1917 he joined a group of artists from Kharkov with whom he designed revolutionary propaganda posters.[1] El-Hanani participated in the anthropological Jewish expedition under the leadership of S. Ansky into the Pale of Settlement, which exerted a substantial influence on Russian-Jewish avant-garde art.[1]Mandate Palestine and IsraelIn 1922 El-Hanani immigrated to Mandate Palestine,[1][6] where he settled in Jerusalem.[7]Stage designIn the 1920s and 1930s Elhanani continued his avant-garde work by designing sets and costumes for theatre plays such as "Nishfei Peretz" (lit. 'Peretz soireés'; 1926) and "Megilat Esther" (lit. 'Book of Esther'; 1930).[5] He designed the set for the first production of the ohel (lit. 'tent') workers' theatre, dedicated to the stories of Isaac Leib Peretz, and was one of the designers for the second ohel exhibition of 1927.[1]Trade fair design"The Hebrew Worker" statue at the Levant Fair, c. 1934El-Hanani found work as a trade fair designer.[6] In 1934 he both designed and managed the site of the Levant Fair in Tel Aviv. This rendered him responsible for some of the buildings and sculptures at the fair, most specifically the Fair's symbol, the Flying Camel.[5][6] Also for the Fair he created an 8-meter high sculpture in the style of Russian Constructivism, known as "The Hebrew Laborer",[7] erected in 1934 and restored in 1989 when the original material, iron, was replaced by concrete and steel.[8] Eventually he designed pavilions for trade fairs abroad.[6] El-Hanani also planned the Tel Aviv Convention Center.[citation needed][dubious – discuss]ArchitectureThe Great Synagogue (Tel Aviv) after the substantial reconstruction by Elhanani (1969)Yad Vashem, the Hall of RemembranceEl-Hanani designed a number of buildings, some of which have become iconic in Israel.For Yad Vashem, the national Holocaust memorial, El-Hanani designed the Hall of Remembrance (1957-1961) working alongside Arieh Sharon and Benjamin Idelson, and participated as a judge in the design competition for the Valley of the Destroyed Communities.[9][10][5]He designed the municipal auditorium in Kfar Saba, the Gan Ha'ir Tower of Tel Aviv, and several buildings of the Weizmann Institute of Science, of which the Wix Library (1957) constitutes one of the works he's best known for.[5] His other Weizmann Institute projects are the Jacob Ziskind Building (together with Israel Dicker and Uriel Schiller, 1947, according to a sketch by Erich Mendelsohn),[11] the Isaac Wolfson Building (1953), the Modernist-Brutalist Conference Center (1958),[11] the Charles Clore International House (with Nissan Canaan, 1963),[11][12] and the Stone Administration Building (with Nissan Canaan, 1966).[11]After the first Weizmann Institute projects, El-Hanani went on to design other buildings for institutes of higher learning, such as the Wurzweiler Central Library of the Bar-Ilan University (with Nissan Canaan, 1967).[6][13][14]Other design workApart from stage design, Elhanani also worked in the fields of graphic design, sculpture, and typography.[15]The Russian avant-garde style can be easily recognised in his work for the Hebrew-language monthly youth magazine "Moledeth" ("Homeland") published in the 1920s in Erez Israel.[16]El-Hanani designed the logos of the pre-state Palmach paramilitary, and later that of the Israel Defense Forces.[5]Awards - both received and created in his nameThe Israel Prize for Architecture, awarded to El-Hanani in 1973[6]The Elhanani Prize for Integration of Art and Architecture, named for him and awarded by his family and the Yehoshua Rabinowitz Fund[5]Personal lifeArieh Elhanani was married to Sara with whom he had two children including a daughter, Michal (later Michal Golan).[4]External links16 posters by Arieh El-Hanani (Sapozhnikov), mainly 1920s-30s, at The Palestine Poster Project Archives. Retrieved 3 November 2020. ***** Arie Elhanani, Israeli, born in Russian Empire, 1898-1985Arie Elhanani was born in Poltava in the Russian Empire. He studied art and architecture in Kiev, where he was exposed to Russian avant-garde art. He was a member of the ethnographic expedition headed by S. An-Ski that traveled around Russia. After the October Revolution in 1917, he created avant-garde propaganda posters in collaboration with a group of artists in Kharkov.In 1922, Elhanani immigrated to the Land of Israel. In the 1920s and 1930s, he designed sets and costumes for many plays, among them "Nishfei Peretz" (1926) and "Megilat Esther" (1930), preserving his avant-garde style. As an architect, he designed many buildings in Tel Aviv for Yerid Hamizrach. His best-known works are the Hall of Remembrance at Yad Vashem (1957-1961) and Wix Library at Weizmann Institute (1957). The Elhanani Prize for Integration of Art and Architecture, awarded by the family and the Yehoshua Rabinowitz Fund, is named for him.Education1917 School of Arts and Architecture, Kiev, Russian EmpireAwards And Prizes1973 Israel Prize for Architecture .[20]1481 folder 28
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