1897 Solid Silver Antique Queen Victoria Crown Coin Juventus Formed Dark Toned for Sale

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1897 Solid Silver Antique Queen Victoria Crown Coin Juventus Formed Dark Toned For Sale

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1897 Solid Silver Antique Queen Victoria Crown Coin Juventus Formed Dark Toned:
$129.15

Queen Victoria
Solid Silver Crown1897 was the year Juventus were formedThis is a 1897 Nicely Dark Toned Victorian Crown whichfeatures the Robed Jubilee bust portrait of mature Queen Victoriafacing left, adorned with jewellery, veil, and a small crownas designed by Joseph Edgar Boehm
The obverse, with the reverse design depicting the famed St George, the paton saint of England and the Dragon by Benedetto Pistrucci.
The Victoria Jubilee Head obverse design was adopted from 1887 for silver and gold coins only, and was continued until the old head portrait was introduced in 1893. It was the second major portrait type of Victoria\'s reign, and was introduced for the golden jubilee (50 years) of Queen Victoria\'s reign. She acceded to the throne in 1837.
The Obverse reads \'VICTORIA D:G: BRITT:REG:F:D:\'.
Monarch - Victoria (1837 - 1901)Edge - reededWeight - 28.35 gDiameter - 38.6 mmComposition - 92.5% silverMinted - London, EnglandMintage - approx. 1,807,223 (inc varieties)

A wonderful item for anyone who loves the Royal Family

It would be a super addition to any collection, excellent display, practical piece or authentic period prop.
This once belonged to my Grand Mother and she kept in a display cabinet for many years, but when she died it was placed in a box for storage.\"e have decided to sell some of her items to raise money for a Memorial Bench with a plaqueWhere we can sit and remember her on Summer Days
I hope it will find a good homeIn Very goodconditionfor over 126 Years OldComes from a pet and smoke free home
Sorry about the poor quality photos.Theydon\'tdo the coin justice which looks a lot better in real life
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Juventus FCArticleTalkReadView sourceView historyToolsAppearance (beta)AutomaticLightDarkReport an issue with dark modeThis is a good article. Click here for more information.Page semi-protectedFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaThis article is about the men\'s association football club from Turin, Italy. For other uses, see Juventus FC (disambiguation).\"Juventus\" redirects here. For the ancient Roman goddess, see Juventas. For other uses, see Juventus (disambiguation).JuventusJuventus\'s logo, a stylized outlined letter JFull name Juventus Football Club S.p.A.Nickname(s) La Vecchia Signora (The Old Lady)La Fidanzata d\'Italia (The Girlfriend of Italy)Madama (Piedmontese pronunciation: [maˈdama]; The Lady)I Bianconeri (The White and Blacks)[a]Le Zebre (The Zebras)La Gheuba (Piedmontese pronunciation: [la ˈɡøba]; The Hunchback)Short name JuveFounded 1 November 1897; 126 years ago,[b] as Sport-Club Juventus[3]Ground Juventus StadiumCapacity 41,507[4]Owner Agnelli family (through Exor N.V.)President Gianluca FerreroHead coach Thiago MottaLeague Serie A2023–24 Serie A, 3rd of 20Website Club websiteHome colours Current seasonActive teams of Juventus FCSerie A(Men)Serie A(Women)Serie C(Men)YouthvteJuventus Football Club (from Latin: iuventūs, \'youth\'; Italian pronunciation: [juˈvɛntus]), commonly known as Juventus or colloquially as Juve (pronounced [ˈjuːve]),[5] is an Italian professional football club based in Turin, Piedmont, who compete in Serie A, the top tier of the Italian football league system. Founded in 1897 by a group of Torinese students, the club has worn a black and white striped home kit since 1903 and has played home matches in different grounds around its city, the latest being the 41,507-capacity Juventus Stadium. Nicknamed la Vecchia Signora (\"the Old Lady\"), the club has won 36 official league titles, 15 Coppa Italia trophies and nine Italian Super Cups, being the record holder for all these competitions; they also hold two Intercontinental Cups, two European Cup / UEFA Champions Leagues, one European Cup Winners\' Cup, three UEFA Cups (Italian record), two UEFA Super Cups and one UEFA Intertoto Cup (Italian record).[6][7] Consequently, the side leads the historical Federazione Italiana Giuoco Calcio (FIGC) classification,[c] whilst on the international stage the club occupies the sixth position in Europe and the twelfth in the world for most confederation titles won with eleven trophies,[9] as well as the fourth in the all-time Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) competitions ranking,[d] having obtained the highest coefficient score during seven seasons since its introduction in 1979, the most for an Italian team in both cases and joint second overall in the last cited.Founded with the name of Sport-Club Juventus, initially as an athletics club,[11] it is the second oldest of its kind still active in the country after Genoa\'s football section (1893) and has competed every season of the premier club division (reformulated in different formats until the Serie A inception in 1929) since its debut in 1900 with the exception of the 2006–07 season, being managed by the industrial Agnelli family almost continuously since 1923.[e] The relationship between the club and that dynasty is the oldest and longest in national sports, making Juventus one of the first professional sporting clubs ante litteram in the country,[13] having established itself as a major force in the national stage since the 1930s and at confederation level since the mid-1970s,[14] and becoming, in a nearly stable basis, one of the top-ten wealthiest in world football in terms of value, revenue and profit since the mid-1990s,[15] being listed on the Borsa Italiana since 2001.[16]Under the management of Giovanni Trapattoni, the club won 13 trophies in the ten years before 1986, including six league titles and five international tournaments, and became the first to win all three seasonal competitions organised by the Union of European Football Associations: the 1976–77 UEFA Cup (first Southern European side to do so), the 1983–84 Cup Winners\' Cup and the 1984–85 European Champions\' Cup.[17] With successive triumphs in the 1984 European Super Cup and 1985 Intercontinental Cup, it became the first and thus far only in the world to complete a clean sweep of all five historical confederation trophies;[18] an achievement that they revalidated with the title won in the 1999 UEFA Intertoto Cup after another successful era led by Marcello Lippi,[19] becoming in addition, until 2022, the only professional Italian club to have won every ongoing honour available to the first team and organised by a national or international football association.[f] In December 2000, Juventus was placed seventh in the FIFA\'s historic ranking of the best clubs in the world,[20] and nine years later was ranked second best club in Europe during the 20th century based on a statistical study series by the International Federation of Football History & Statistics (IFFHS), the highest for an Italian club in both.[21]The club\'s fan base is the largest at national level and one of the largest worldwide.[22][23] Unlike most European sporting supporters\' groups, which are often concentrated around their own club\'s city of origin,[24] it is widespread throughout the whole country and the Italian diaspora, making Juventus a symbol of anticampanilismo (\"anti-parochialism\") and italianità (\"Italianness\").[25][26] Juventus players have won eight Ballon d\'Or awards, four of these in consecutive years (1982–1985, an overall joint record), among these Michel Platini as well as three of the five recipients with Italian nationality as the first player representing Serie A, Omar Sívori, and the former member of the youth sector Paolo Rossi; they have also won four FIFA World Player of the Year awards, with winners as Roberto Baggio and Zinedine Zidane, a national record and third and joint second highest overall, respectively, in the cited prizes. Finally, the club has also provided the most players to the Italy national team—mostly in official competitions in almost uninterrupted way since 1924—who often formed the group that led the Azzurri squad to international success, most importantly in the 1934, 1982 and 2006 FIFA World Cup.[27][28]HistoryMain article: History of Juventus F.C.Early years (1897–1918)One of the first Juventus club shot, 1899Juventus was founded as Sport-Club Juventus in late 1897 by pupils from the Massimo d\'Azeglio Lyceum school in Turin, among them Eugenio Canfari and Enrico Canfari.[29] It was renamed as Foot-Ball Club Juventus two years later.[30] The club joined the 1900 Italian Football Championship. Juventus played their first Italian Football Championship match on 11 March 1900 in a 1–0 defeat against Torinese.[31]The Juventus team during the 1905 season in which they won their first league titleIn 1904, businessman Marco Ajmone-Marsan revived the finances of Juventus, making it possible to transfer the training field from piazza d\'armi to the more appropriate Velodrome Umberto I. During this period, the team wore a pink and black kit. Juventus first won the 1905 Italian Football Championship while playing at their Velodrome Umberto I ground. By this time, the club colours had changed to black and white stripes, inspired by English side Notts County.[32]There was a split at the club in 1906, after some of the staff considered moving Juve out of Turin.[30] Alfred Dick, the club\'s president,[g] was unhappy with this, and left with some prominent players to found FBC Torino, which in turn spawned the Derby della Mole.[33] Juventus spent much of this period steadily rebuilding after the split, surviving the First World War.[32]League dominance (1923–1980)The \"Magical Trio\" (Trio Magico) of Omar Sívori, John Charles, and Giampiero Boniperti in 1957In 1922, a new stadium was inaugurated and, a year later, FIAT vice president Edoardo Agnelli was elected club\'s president.[30] These two events helped the club to its second league championship in the 1925–26 Prima Divisione, after beating Alba Roma in a two-legged final with an aggregate score of 12–1.[32] The club established itself as a major force in Italian football in the 1930s, becoming the country\'s first professional club and the first with a decentralised fan base.[34] This led Juventus to win a record of five consecutive Italian football championships and form the core of the Italy national football team during the Vittorio Pozzo era, including the 1934 FIFA World Cup winning squad, with star players like Raimundo Orsi, Luigi Bertolini, Giovanni Ferrari, and Luis Monti, among others.[35][36]Juventus moved to the Stadio Comunale, but for the rest of the 1930s and the majority of the 1940s they were unable to recapture championship dominance. After the Second World War, Gianni Agnelli was appointed president.[30] In the late 1940s and early 1950s, the club added two more league championships to its name, winning the 1949–50 Serie A under the management of Englishman Jesse Carver, and then repeating in the 1951–52 Serie A. For the 1957–58 Serie A, two new strikers, Welshman John Charles and Italian Argentine Omar Sívori, were signed to play alongside longtime member Giampiero Boniperti. In the 1959–60 Juventus F.C. season, they beat Fiorentina to complete their first league and cup double, winning the 1959–60 Serie A and the 1960 Coppa Italia final. Boniperti retired in 1961 as the all-time top scorer at the club, with 182 goals in all competitions, a club record that stood for 45 years.[37]During the rest of the decade, the club only won the 1966–67 Serie A.[32] The 1970s saw Juventus further solidify their strong position in Italian football, and under former player Čestmír Vycpálek they won the scudetto in the 1971–72 Serie A, and followed through in the 1972–73 Serie A,[32] with players like as Roberto Bettega, Franco Causio, and José Altafini breaking through. During the rest of the decade, they won the league thrice more, with defender Gaetano Scirea contributing significantly. The latter two success in Serie A was under Giovanni Trapattoni, who also led the club to their first ever major European title, the 1976–77 UEFA Cup, and helped the club\'s domination continue on into the early part of the 1980s.[38]European stage (1980–1993)TacconiScirea European Cup final starting lineupThe club led under Trapattoni in the 1980s brought them the league title three more times by 1984.[32] This meant Juventus had won 20 Italian league titles and were allowed to add a second golden star to their shirt, becoming the only Italian club to achieve this.[38] Around this time, the club\'s players were attracting considerable attention, and Paolo Rossi was named European Footballer of the Year following his contribution to Italy\'s victory in the 1982 FIFA World Cup, where he was named Player of the Tournament.[39]Frenchman Michel Platini was awarded the European Footballer of the Year title for three years in a row in 1983, 1984 and 1985, which is a record.[40] Juventus are the first and one of the only two clubs to have players from their club winning the award in four consecutive years.[41][h] It was Platini who scored the winning goal in the 1985 European Cup final against Liverpool; this was marred by the Heysel Stadium disaster, which changed European football.[43] That year, Juventus became the first club in the history of European football to have won all three major UEFA competitions;[44][45] after their triumph in the 1985 Intercontinental Cup, the club also became the first and thus far the only in association football history to have won all five possible confederation competitions,[46] an achievement that it revalidated with a sixth title won in the 1999 UEFA Intertoto Cup.[47][48]With the exception of winning the closely contested 1985–86 Serie A, the rest of the 1980s were not very successful for the club. As well as having to contend with Diego Maradona\'s Napoli, both of the Milanese clubs, A.C. Milan and Inter Milan, won Italian championships; Juventus achieved a double by winning the 1989–90 Coppa Italia and the 1990 UEFA Cup final under the guidance of former club legend Dino Zoff.[32] In 1990, Juventus also moved into their new home, the Stadio delle Alpi, which was built for the 1990 FIFA World Cup.[49] Despite the arrival of Italian star Roberto Baggio later that year for a world football transfer record fee, the early 1990s under Luigi Maifredi and subsequently Trapattoni once again also saw little success for Juventus, as they only managed to win the 1993 UEFA Cup final.[50]Renewed international success PieroVialli (c)1996 Champions League final starting lineupMarcello Lippi took over as Juventus manager at the start of the 1994–95 Serie A.[30] His first season at the helm of the club was a successful one, as Juventus recorded their first Serie A championship title since the mid-1980s, as well as the 1995 Coppa Italia final.[32] The crop of players during this period featured Ciro Ferrara, Roberto Baggio, Gianluca Vialli, and a young Alessandro Del Piero. Lippi led Juventus to the 1995 Supercoppa Italiana and the 1995–96 UEFA Champions League, beating Ajax on penalties after a 1–1 draw in which Fabrizio Ravanelli scored for Juventus.[51]The club did not rest long after winning the European Cup, as more highly regarded players were brought into the fold in the form of Zinedine Zidane, Filippo Inzaghi, and Edgar Davids. At home, Juventus won the 1996–97 Serie A, successfully defended their title in the 1997–98 Serie A, won the 1996 UEFA Super Cup,[52] and followed through with the 1996 Intercontinental Cup.[53] Juventus reached two consecutive Champions League finals during this period but lost out to Borussia Dortmund and Real Madrid,[54][55] respectively in 1997 and 1998.[56][57]After a two-and-a-half-season absence, Lippi returned to the club in 2001, following his replacement Carlo Ancelotti\'s dismissal, signing big name players like Gianluigi Buffon, David Trezeguet, Pavel Nedvěd, and Lilian Thuram, helping the team to win the 2001–02 Serie A, which was their first since 1998, and confirmed themselves in the 2002–03 Serie A.[32] Juventus were also part of the all Italian 2003 UEFA Champions League final but lost out to Milan on penalties after the game ended in a 0–0 draw. At the conclusion of the following season, Lippi was appointed as the Italy national team\'s head coach, bringing an end to one of the most fruitful managerial spells in Juventus\'s history.[38]Calciopoli scandal (2004–2007)Fabio Capello was appointed as Juventus\'s coach in 2004 and led the club to two more consecutive Serie A first places. In May 2006, Juventus emerged as one of the five clubs linked to the Calciopoli scandal. In July, Juventus was placed at the bottom of the league table and relegated to Serie B for the first time in its history. The club was also stripped of the 2004–05 Serie A title, while the 2005–06 Serie A winner, after a period sub judice, was declared to be third-placed Inter Milan.[58] This remains a much debated and controversial issue,[59][60][61] particularly due to Inter Milan\'s later revealed involvement, the 2004 championship (the sole being investigated) deemed regular and not fixed,[62][63][64] Juventus being absolved as club in the ordinary justice proceedings,[65][66] their renounce to the Italian civil courts appeal, which could have cleared the club\'s name and avoid relegation, after FIFA threatened to suspend the Italian Football Federation (FIGC) and barring all Italian clubs from international play,[67][68][69] and the motivations,[70] such as sentimento popolare (people\'s feelings),[71] and the newly created ad-hoc rule used to relegate the club.[72][73][74]Star goalkeeper Gianluigi Buffon was among a group of players who remained with the club following their demotion to Serie B in 2006.Many key players left following their relegation to Serie B, including Thuram, star striker Zlatan Ibrahimović, midfielders Emerson and Patrick Vieira, and defensive stalwarts Fabio Cannavaro and Gianluca Zambrotta;[75] other big name players, such as Del Piero, Buffon, Trezeguet, and Nedvěd, as well as the club\'s future defense core Giorgio Chiellini, remained to help the club return to Serie A,[76] while youngsters from the Campionato Nazionale Primavera (youth team), such as Sebastian Giovinco and Claudio Marchisio, were integrated into the first team.[77][78] Juventus won the Cadetti title (Serie B championship) despite starting with a points deduction and gained promotion straight back up to the top division, with Del Piero claiming the top scorer award with 21 goals, as league winners after the 2006–07 Serie B season.[79]As early as 2010, when many other clubs were implicated and Inter Milan, Livorno, and Milan liable of direct Article 6 violations in the 2011 Palazzi Report, Juventus considered challenging the stripping of their scudetto from 2006 and the non-assignment of the 2005 title, dependent on the results of Calciopoli trials connected to the 2006 scandal.[80] When former general manager Luciano Moggi\'s conviction in criminal court in connection with the scandal was partially written off by the Supreme Court in March 2015,[81][82] the club sued the FIGC for €443 million for damages caused by their 2006 relegation. Then-FIGC president Carlo Tavecchio offered to discuss reinstatement of the lost scudetti in exchange for Juventus dropping the lawsuit.[83]In September 2015, the Supreme Court released a 150-page document that explained its final ruling of the case, based on the controversial 2006 sports ruling, which did not take in consideration the other clubs involved because they could not be put on trial due to the statute of limitations, and it would be necessary to request and open a revocation of judgment pursuant to Article 39 of the Code of Sports Justice. Despite his remaining charges being cancelled without a new trial due to statute of limitations, the court confirmed that Moggi was actively involved in the sporting fraud, which was intended to favour Juventus and increase his own personal benefits according to La Gazzetta dello Sport.[84] As did the Naples court in 2012,[85][86] the court commented that the developments and behavior of other clubs and executives were not investigated in depth.[87] Once they exhausted their appeals in Italy\'s courts,[88] both Moggi and Giraudo appealed to the European Court of Human Rights in March 2020; Giraudo\'s was accepted in September 2021.[89][90] Juventus continued to present new appeals,[91] which were declared inadmissible.[92]Return to Serie A (2007–2011)After making their comeback for the 2007–08 Serie A, Juventus appointed Claudio Ranieri as manager.[93] They finished in third place in their first season back in the top flight and qualified for the 2008–09 UEFA Champions League\'s third qualifying round in the preliminary stages. Juventus reached the group stages, where they beat Real Madrid in both home and away legs, before losing in the knockout round to Chelsea. Ranieri was sacked following a string of unsuccessful results and Ciro Ferrara was appointed as manager on a temporary basis for the last two games of the 2008–09 Serie A,[94] before being subsequently appointed as the manager for the 2009–10 Serie A.[95]Ferrara\'s stint as Juventus manager proved to be unsuccessful, with Juventus knocked out of 2009–10 UEFA Champions League, and also of the 2009–10 Coppa Italia, as well as just lying on the sixth place in the league table at the end of January 2010, leading to the dismissal of Ferrara and the naming of Alberto Zaccheroni as caretaker manager. Zaccheroni could not help the side improve, as Juventus finished the season in seventh place in Serie A. For the 2010–11 Serie A, Jean-Claude Blanc was replaced by Andrea Agnelli as the club\'s president. Agnelli\'s first action was to replace Zaccheroni and director of sport Alessio Secco with Sampdoria manager Luigi Delneri and director of sport Giuseppe Marotta.[96] Delneri failed to improve their fortunes and was dismissed, and former player and fan favourite Antonio Conte, fresh after winning promotion with Siena, was named as Delneri\'s replacement.[97] In September 2011, Juventus relocated to the new Juventus Stadium, known as the Allianz Stadium since 2017.[98]Nine consecutive scudetti (2011–2020)Playmaker Andrea Pirlo playing for Juventus in 2012With Conte as manager, Juventus were unbeaten for the entire 2011–12 Serie A season. Towards the second half of the season, the team was mostly competing with northern rivals Milan for first place in a tight contest. Juventus won the title on the 37th matchday after beating Cagliari 2–0 and Milan losing to Inter 4–2. After a 3–1 win in the final matchday against Atalanta, Juventus became the first team to go the season unbeaten in the current 38-game format.[99] In 2013–14 Serie A, Juventus won a third consecutive scudetto with a record 102 points and 33 wins.[100][101] The title was the 30th official league championship in the club\'s history.[102] They also achieved the semi-finals of 2013–14 UEFA Europa League, where they were eliminated at home against ten-man Benfica\'s catenaccio, missing the 2014 UEFA Europa League final at the Juventus Stadium.[103][104]Juventus captain Giorgio Chiellini receiving the 2016–17 Coppa Italia from Sergio Mattarella, the president of ItalyIn the 2014–15 Serie A, Massimiliano Allegri was appointed as manager, with whom Juventus won their 31st official title, making it a fourth-straight, as well as achieving a record tenth Coppa Italia, after beating Lazio 2–2 in the 2015 Coppa Italia final, for the domestic double.[105] The club also beat Real Madrid 3–2 on aggregate in the semi-finals of the 2014–15 UEFA Champions League to face Barcelona in the 2015 UEFA Champions League final in Berlin for the first time since the 2002–03 UEFA Champions League.[106] Juventus lost the final against Barcelona 3–1.[107] In the 2016 Coppa Italia final, the club won the title for the 11th time and second straight win, becoming the first team in Italy\'s history to win Serie A and Coppa Italia doubles in back-to-back seasons.[108][109][110]In the 2017 Coppa Italia final, Juventus won their 12th Coppa Italia title in a 2–0 win over Lazio, becoming the first team to win three consecutive titles.[111] Four days later on 21 May, Juventus became the first team to win six consecutive Serie A titles.[112] In the 2017 UEFA Champions League final, their second Champions League final in three years, Juventus were defeated 1–4 by defending champions Real Madrid; the 2017 Turin stampede happened ten minutes before the end of the match.[113][114] In the 2018 Coppa Italia final, Juventus won their 13th title and fourth in a row in a 4–0 win over Milan, extending the all-time record of successive Coppa Italia titles.[115] Juventus then secured their seventh consecutive Serie A title, extending the all-time record of successive triumphs in the competition.[116] In the 2018 Supercoppa Italiana, which was held in January 2019, Juventus and Milan, who were tied for Supercoppa Italiana wins with seven each, played against each other; Juventus won their eight title after beating Milan 1–0.[117] In April 2019, Juventus secured their eighth consecutive Serie A title, further extending the all-time record of successive triumphs in the competition.[118] Following Allegri\'s departure,[119] Maurizio Sarri was appointed manager of the club ahead of the 2019–20 Juventus F.C. season.[120] Juventus were confirmed 2019–20 Serie A champions, reaching an unprecedented milestone of nine consecutive league titles.[121]Recent history (2020–present)On 8 August 2020, Sarri was sacked from his managerial position, one day after Juventus were eliminated from the 2019–20 UEFA Champions League by Lyon.[122] On the same day, former player Andrea Pirlo was announced as the new coach, signing a two-year contract.[123] In the 2020 Supercoppa Italiana, which was held in January 2021, Juventus won their ninth title after a 2–0 victory against Napoli.[124] With Inter Milan\'s win of the 2020–21 Serie A, Juventus\'s run of nine consecutive titles came to an end;[125] the club managed to secure a fourth-place finish on the final day of the league, granting Juventus qualification to the following season\'s Champions League.[126] In the 2021 Coppa Italia final, Juventus won their 14th title.[127] On 28 May, Juventus sacked Pirlo from his managerial position,[128][129] and announced Allegri\'s return to the club as manager after two years away from management on a four-year contract.[130] Although Allegri had considered the victory of the scudetto as a seasonal goal,[131] Juventus reached another fourth place in the league.[132] After losing 4–2 after extra time to Inter Milan in the 2022 Coppa Italia final, the 2021–22 Juventus F.C. season marked the first season since 2010–11 in which the club had not won a trophy.[132]In the 2022–23 season, Juventus had one victory and five defeats in their Champions League group, achieving their worst-ever score (3 points) and their greatest-ever number of losses in the competition\'s group stage.[133] Through their better goal difference over fourth-placed Maccabi Haifa, the team finished third and dropped down into the Europa League,[133] in which they were defeated 2–1 by Sevilla after extra time at the Ramón Sánchez Pizjuán Stadium in the semi-final.[134] On 28 November 2022, the entire board of directors resigned from their respective positions, Andrea Agnelli as president, Pavel Nedvěd as vice president, and Maurizio Arrivabene as CEO.[135][136][137] Agnelli\'s presidency was the most victorious of the club\'s history, with 19 titles won.[138] Exor, the club\'s controlling shareholder, appointed Gianluca Ferrero as its new chairman ahead of the shareholders\' meeting on 18 January 2023.[139]Two days later, after being acquitted by the FIGC\'s Court of Appeal in April–May 2022,[140][141][142] Juventus were deducted 15 points as punishment for capital gain violations,[143] as part of an investigation related to the 2019–2021 budgets during the COVID-19 pandemic starting in November 2021.[144] This was harsher than the point deduction recommended by the FIGC prosecutor, who said that in the standings Juventus \"must now finish behind Roma, outside the European Cup area\".[145][146] The penalty caused an uproar and protests among Juventus supporters,[147] who cancelled, or threatened to do so, their Sky Sport and DAZN subscriptions.[148][149][150] Following Juventus\'s appeal, the decision had initially been reversed on 20 April 2023,[151] but the club were given a new penalty, this time of ten points, on 22 May.[152] Within the aforementioned FIGC\'s inquiry, on 29 May, Juventus proposed a plea bargain for their false accounting on staff salaries;[153][154] the request was accepted one day later and Juventus only received a fine of €718,240 without any further penalty.[155] Juventus finished the 2022–23 Serie A in seventh place and qualified to the UEFA Europa Conference League with 62 points.[i][156] However, on 28 July, UEFA ejected Juventus from its competitions for one year as the club violated a settlement agreement with UEFA signed in August 2022.[157] The 2023–24 season was the first in which Juventus did not participate in UEFA competitions since 2011–12.[157]Crest and coloursWikimedia Commons has media related to Juventus F.C. kits.Juventus have played in black and white striped shirts, with white shorts, sometimes black shorts since 1903. Originally, they played in pink shirts with a black tie. The father of one of the players made the earliest shirts, but continual washing faded the colour so much that in 1903 the club sought to replace them.[158] Juventus asked one of their team members, Englishman John Savage, if he had any contacts in England who could supply new shirts in a colour that would better withstand the elements. He had a friend who lived in Nottingham, who being a Notts County supporter, shipped out the black and white striped shirts to Turin.[158] Juventus have worn the shirts ever since, considering the colours to be aggressive and powerful.[158]Juventus\'s official emblem has undergone different and small modifications since the 1920s. The previous modification of the Juventus badge took place in 2004, when the emblem of the team changed to a black-and-white oval shield of a type used by Italian ecclesiastics. It is divided in five vertical stripes: two white stripes and three black stripes, inside which are the following elements, while in its upper section the name of the society superimposed on a white convex section, over golden curvature (gold for honour). The white silhouette of a charging bull is in the lower section of the oval shield, superimposed on a black old French shield and the charging bull is a symbol of the comune of Turin. There is also a black silhouette of a mural crown above the black spherical triangle\'s base. This is a reminiscence to Augusta Tourinorum, the old city of the Roman era which the present capital of Piedmont region is its cultural heiress. In January 2017, president Andrea Agnelli announced the change to the Juventus badge for a logotype. More specifically, it is a pictogram composed by a stylised Black and White \"J\" which Agnelli said reflects \"the Juventus way of living.\"[159] Juventus was the first team in sports history to adopt a star as a symbol associated with any competition\'s triumph, who added one above their badge in 1958 to represent their tenth Italian Football Championship and Serie A title, and has since become popularized with other clubs as well.[160]In the past, the convex section of the emblem had a blue colour (another symbol of Turin) and it was concave in shape. The old French shield and the mural crown, also in the lower section of the emblem, had a considerably greater size. The two \"Golden Stars for Sport Excellence\" were located above the convex and concave section of Juventus\'s emblem. During the 1980s, the club emblem was the blurred silhouette of a zebra, alongside the two golden stars with the club\'s name forming an arc above.Juventus unofficially won their 30th league title in 2011–12, but a dispute with the FIGC, which stripped Juventus of their 2004–05 title and did not assign them the 2005–06 title due to their involvement in the Calciopoli scandal, left their official total at 28; the club elected to wear no stars at all the following season.[161] Juventus won their 30th title in 2013–14 and thus earned the right to wear their third star, but Agnelli stated that the club suspended the use of the stars until another team wins their 20th championship, having the right to wear two stars \"to emphasise the difference\".[162] For the 2015–16 season, Juventus reintroduced the stars and added the third star to their jersey as well with new kit manufacturers Adidas, in addition to the Coppa Italia badge for winning their tenth Coppa Italia the previous season.[163] For the 2016–17 season, Juventus re-designed their kit with a different take on the trademark black and white stripes.[164] For the 2017–18 season, Juventus introduced the J shaped logo onto the kits.[165]In September 2015, Juventus officially announced a new project called JKids for its junior supporters on its website. Along with this project, Juventus also introduced a new mascot to all its fans which is called J. J is a cartoon-designed zebra, black and white stripes with golden edge piping on its body, golden shining eyes, and three golden stars on the front of its neck.[166] J made its debut at Juventus Stadium on 12 September 2015.[167]During its history, the club has acquired a number of nicknames, la Vecchia Signora (the Old Lady) being the best example. The \"old\" part of the nickname is a pun on Juventus which means \"youth\" in Latin. It was derived from the age of the Juventus star players towards the middle of the 1930s. The \"lady\" part of the nickname is how fans of the club affectionately referred to it before the 1930s. The club is also nicknamed la Fidanzata d\'Italia (lit. \'the Girlfriend of Italy\'), because over the years it has received a high level of support from Southern Italian immigrant workers (particularly from Naples and Palermo), who arrived in Turin to work for FIAT since the 1930s. Other nicknames include [la] Madama (Piedmontese for Madam), i bianconeri (lit. \'the black-and-whites\'), le zebre (lit. \'the zebras\')[j] in reference to Juventus\'s colours. I gobbi (lit. \'the hunchbacks\') is the nickname that is used to define Juventus supporters, but is also used sometimes for team\'s players. The most widely accepted origin of gobbi dates to the fifties, when the bianconeri wore a large jersey. When players ran on the field, the jersey, which had a laced opening at the chest, generated a bulge over the back (a sort of parachute effect), making the players look hunchbacked.[168]The official anthem of Juventus is Juve (storia di un grande amore), or Juve (story of a great love) in English, written by Alessandra Torre and Claudio Guidetti, in the version of the singer and musician Paolo Belli composed in 2007.[169] In 2016, a documentary film called Black and White Stripes: The Juventus Story was produced by the La Villa brothers about Juventus.[170] On 16 February 2018, the first three episodes of a docu-series called First Team: Juventus, which followed the club throughout the season, by spending time with the players behind the scenes both on and off the field, was released on Netflix; the other three episodes were released on 6 July 2018.[171] On 25 November 2021, an eight-episode docu-series called All or Nothing: Juventus, which followed the club throughout the season, by spending time with the players behind the scenes both on and off the field, was released on Amazon Prime.[172]StadiumsJuventus StadiumAllianz StadiumLocation Corso Gaetano Scirea,10151 Turin, ItalyOwner Juventus F.C.Operator Juventus F.C.Capacity 41,507 seatedConstructionBroke ground 1 March 2009Opened 8 September 2011Construction cost €155,000,000[173]Architect Hernando Suarez,Gino Zavanella,Giorgetto GiugiaroMain articles: Juventus Stadium, Stadio Olimpico di Torino, Stadio delle Alpi, Stadio di Corso Marsiglia, and Stadio Motovelodromo Umberto IAfter the first two years (1897 and 1898), during which Juventus played in the Parco del Valentino and Parco Cittadella, their matches were held in the Piazza d\'Armi Stadium until 1908, except in 1905 (the first year of the scudetto) and in 1906, years in which they played at the Corso Re Umberto.From 1909 to 1922, Juventus played their internal competitions at Corso Sebastopoli Camp before moving the following year to Corso Marsiglia Camp, where they remained until 1933, winning four league titles. At the end of 1933, they began to play at the new Stadio Benito Mussolini inaugurated for the 1934 World Championships. After the Second World War, the stadium was renamed as Stadio Comunale Vittorio Pozzo. Juventus played home matches at the ground for 57 years, a total of 890 league matches.[174] The team continued to host training sessions at the stadium until July 2003.[175]From 1990 until the 2005–06 season, the Torinese side contested their home matches at Stadio delle Alpi, built for the 1990 FIFA World Cup, although in very rare circumstances the club played some home games in other stadia such as Renzo Barbera at Palermo, Dino Manuzzi in Cesena and the Stadio Giuseppe Meazza in Milan.[175]In August 2006, Juventus returned to play in the Stadio Comunale, then known as Stadio Olimpico, after the restructuring of the stadium for the 2006 Winter Olympics onward. In November 2008, Juventus announced that they would invest around €120 million to build a new ground, the Juventus Stadium, on the site of delle Alpi.[176] Unlike the old ground, there is not a running track and instead the pitch is only 7.5 metres away from the stands.[4] The capacity is 41,507.[4] Work began during spring 2009 and the stadium was opened on 8 September 2011, ahead of the start of the 2011–12 season.[177] Since 1 July 2017, the Juventus Stadium is known commercially as the Allianz Stadium of Turin until 30 June 2030.[178][179]SupportersSee also: Juventus F.C. ultrasJuventus is the most-supported football club in Italy, with over 12 million fans or tifosi, which represent approximately 34% of the total Italian football fans according to a research published in September 2016 by Italian research agency Demos & Pi,[22] as well as one of the most supported football clubs in the world, with over 300 million supporters (41 million in Europe alone),[23] particularly in the Mediterranean countries to which a large number of Italian diaspora have emigrated.[180] The Torinese side has fan clubs branches across the globe.[181]Demand for Juventus tickets in occasional home games held away from Turin is high, suggesting that Juventus have stronger support in other parts of the country. Juventus is widely and especially popular throughout mainland Southern Italy, Sicily and Malta, leading the team to have one of the largest followings in its away matches,[182] more than in Turin itself.Club rivalriesMain articles: Derby della Mole, Derby d\'Italia, Juventus F.C.–A.C. Milan rivalry, ACF Fiorentina–Juventus F.C. rivalry, and Juventus F.C.–S.S.C. Napoli rivalryScene from the Derby d\'Italia in 1930Juventus have significant rivalries with two main clubs.Their traditional rivals are fellow Turin club Torino; matches between the two sides are known as the Derby della Mole (Turin Derby). The rivalry dates back to 1906 as Torino was founded by break-away Juventus players and staff.Their most high-profile rivalry is with Inter Milan, another big Serie A club located in Milan, the capital of the neighbouring region of Lombardy. Matches between these two clubs are referred to as the Derby d\'Italia (Derby of Italy) and the two regularly challenge each other at the top of the league table, hence the intense rivalry.[183] Until the Calciopoli scandal which saw Juventus forcibly relegated, the two were the only Italian clubs to have never played below Serie A. Notably, the two sides are the first and the third most supported clubs in Italy and the rivalry has intensified since the later part of the 1990s; reaching its highest levels ever post-Calciopoli, with the return of Juventus to Serie A.[183]The rivalry with AC Milan is a rivalry between the two most titled and supported teams in Italy.[184] The match-ups between Milan and Juventus, is regarded as the championship of Serie A, and both teams were often fighting for the top positions of the standings, sometimes even decisive for the award of the title.[185]They also have rivalries with Roma,[186] Fiorentina[187] and Napoli.[188]Youth programmeMain article: Juventus F.C. Youth SectorThe Juventus youth set-up has been recognised as one of the best in Italy for producing young talents.[189] While not all graduates made it to the first team, many have enjoyed successful careers in the Italian top flight. Under long-time coach Vincenzo Chiarenza, the Primavera (under-19) squad enjoyed one of its successful periods, winning all age-group competitions from 2004 to 2006. Like Dutch club Ajax and many Premier League clubs, Juventus operates several satellite clubs and football schools outside of the country (i.e. United States, Canada, Greece, Saudi Arabia, Australia and Switzerland) and numerous camps in the local region to expand talent scouting.[190] On 3 August 2018, Juventus founded their professional reserve team, called Juventus U23 (renamed to Juventus Next Gen in August 2022),[191] playing in Serie C,[192] who won the Coppa Italia Serie C in 2020.[193] In the 2021–22 UEFA Youth League, the U19 squad reached the semi-finals, equalling the best-ever placing in the competition for a Serie A team.[194]The youth system is also notable for its contribution to the Italian national senior and youth teams. 1934 World Cup winner Gianpiero Combi, 1936 Gold Medal and 1938 World Cup winner Pietro Rava, Giampiero Boniperti, Roberto Bettega, 1982 World Cup hero Paolo Rossi and more recently Claudio Marchisio and Sebastian Giovinco are a number of former graduates who have gone on to make the first team and full Italy squad.[195]PlayersMain article: List of Juventus FC playersFor all current and former Juventus FC players with a Wikipedia article, see Category:Juventus FC players.First-team squadAs of 18 July 2024[196]Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.No. Pos. Nation Player1 GK Poland POL Wojciech Szczęsny2 DF Italy ITA Mattia De Sciglio3 DF Brazil BRA Bremer4 DF Italy ITA Federico Gatti5 MF Italy ITA Manuel Locatelli6 DF Brazil BRA Danilo (captain)7 FW Italy ITA Federico Chiesa9 FW Serbia SRB Dušan Vlahović11 MF Serbia SRB Filip Kostić14 FW Poland POL Arkadiusz Milik15 FW Turkey TUR Kenan Yıldız16 MF United States USA Weston McKennie19 MF France FRA Khéphren Thuram No. Pos. Nation Player20 MF Italy ITA Fabio Miretti21 MF Italy ITA Nicolò Fagioli22 MF United States USA Timothy Weah23 GK Italy ITA Carlo Pinsoglio24 DF Italy ITA Daniele Rugani27 DF Italy ITA Andrea Cambiaso32 DF Colombia COL Juan Cabal33 DF Portugal POR Tiago Djaló36 GK Italy ITA Mattia Perin41 MF Italy ITA Hans Nicolussi Caviglia— GK Italy ITA Michele Di Gregorio (on loan from Monza)— MF Brazil BRA Douglas Luiz— FW Argentina ARG Matías Soulé Juventus Next Gen and Youth SectorMain articles: Juventus Next Gen and Juventus F.C. Youth SectorOther players under contractAs of 3 July 2024Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.No. Pos. Nation Player— GK Italy ITA Stefano Gori— DF Italy ITA Tommaso Barbieri— DF Italy ITA Alessandro Citi— DF Italy ITA Davide De Marino— DF Italy ITA Gianluca Frabotta— DF Uruguay URU Facundo González— DF Spain ESP Dean Huijsen— DF Italy ITA Mattia Marino— DF Italy ITA Alessandro Minelli— DF Italy ITA Alessandro Pio Riccio— MF Brazil BRA Arthur Melo— MF Belgium BEL Daouda Peeters No. Pos. Nation Player— MF France FRA Paul Pogba (suspended)— MF Italy ITA Alessandro Sersanti— MF France FRA Marley Aké— FW Italy ITA Mattia Compagnon— FW Italy ITA Nicolò Cudrig— FW Italy ITA Cosimo Marco da Graca— FW Italy ITA Tommaso Galante— FW Italy ITA Mirco Lipari— FW Switzerland SUI Christopher Lungoyi— FW Italy ITA Marco Olivieri— FW Italy ITA Emanuele Pecorino Out on loanAs of 30 June 2024Note: Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules. Players may hold more than one non-FIFA nationality.No. Pos. Nation Player— DF Italy ITA Luca Pellegrini (at Lazio until 30 June 2025) No. Pos. Nation Player— MF Italy ITA Nicolò Rovella (at Lazio until 30 June 2025) Coaching staffPosition StaffHead coach Italy Thiago MottaAssistant coach Italy Edoardo SacchiniTechnical collaborator Italy Aldo DolcettiItaly Maurizio TrombettaItaly Simone Padoin[197]Italy Francesco MagnanelliHead of athletic preparation Italy Simone FollettiAthletic coach Italy Andrea PertusioItaly Enrico MaffeiItaly Lucia FrancescoHead of conditioning and sport science Italy Duccio Ferrari BravoSport science collaborator Italy Antonio GualtieriGoalkeeping coach Italy Claudio FilippiGoalkeeping coach collaborator Italy Tommaso OrsiniHead of match analysis Italy Riccardo ScireaMatch analysis collaborator Italy Domenico VernamonteItaly Giuseppe MaiuriLast updated: 4 July 2022Source: Juventus.comChairmen historySee also: List of Juventus F.C. chairmenJuventus have had overall 24 presidents (Italian: presidenti, lit. \'presidents\' or Italian: presidenti del consiglio di amministrazione, lit. \'chairmen of the board of directors\') and two administrative committees, some of which have been members of the club\'s main stakeholder group and elected since the club\'s foundation by the then assemblea di soci (membership assembly) through an annual meeting. Since 1949, they have been often corporate managers that were nominated in charge by the assemblea degli azionisti (stakeholders assembly). On top of chairmen, there were several living former presidents, that were nominated as the honorary chairmen (Italian: Presidenti Onorari, lit. \'honorary presidents\').[198]Name YearsEugenio Canfari 1897–1898Enrico Canfari 1898–1901Carlo Favale 1901–1902Giacomo Parvopassu 1903–1904Alfred Dick 1905–1906Carlo Vittorio Varetti 1907–1910Attilio Ubertalli 1911–1912Giuseppe Hess 1913–1915Gioacchino Armano, Fernando Nizza, Sandro Zambelli[k] 1915–1918Corrado Corradini 1919–1920Gino Olivetti 1920–1923Edoardo Agnelli 1923–1935Giovanni Mazzonis 1935–1936Name YearsEmilio de la Forest de Divonne 1936–1941Pietro Dusio 1941–1947Gianni Agnelli[l] 1947–1954Enrico Craveri, Nino Cravetto, Marcello Giustiniani[m] 1954–1955Umberto Agnelli 1955–1962Vittore Catella 1962–1971Giampiero Boniperti[n] 1971–1990Vittorio Caissotti di Chiusano 1990–2003Franzo Grande Stevens[l] 2003–2006Giovanni Cobolli Gigli 2006–2009Jean-Claude Blanc 2009–2010Andrea Agnelli 2010–2023Gianluca Ferrero 2023–Managerial historySee also: List of Juventus F.C. managersGiovanni Trapattoni, the longest serving and most successful manager in the history of Juventus with 14 trophiesBelow is a list of Juventus managers from 1923, when the Agnelli family took over and the club became more structured and organised,[30] until the present day.[199] Name Nationality YearsJenő Károly Hungary 1923–1926József Viola Hungary 1926[o]József Viola Hungary 1926–1928William Aitken Scotland 1928–1930Carlo Carcano Italy 1930–1934Carlo Bigatto IºBenedetto Gola ItalyItaly 1934–1935[o]Virginio Rosetta Italy 1935–1939Umberto Caligaris Italy 1939–1941Federico Munerati Italy 1941[o]Giovanni Ferrari Italy 1941–1942Luis Monti Argentina Italy 1942[o]Felice Placido Borel IIº Italy 1942–1946Renato Cesarini Italy 1946–1948William Chalmers Scotland 1948–1949Jesse Carver England 1949–1951Luigi Bertolini Italy 1951[o]György Sárosi Hungary 1951–1953Aldo Olivieri Italy 1953–1955Sandro Puppo Italy 1955–1957Teobaldo Depetrini Italy 1957Ljubiša Broćić Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia 1957–1958Teobaldo Depetrini Italy 1958–1959[o]Renato Cesarini Italy 1959–1961Carlo Parola Italy 1961[o]Gunnar GrenJúlius Korostelev SwedenCzechoslovakia 1961[o]Carlo Parola Italy 1961–1962Paulo Lima Amaral Brazil 1962–1963 Name Nationality YearsEraldo Monzeglio Italy 1964[o]Heriberto Herrera Paraguay 1964–1969Luis Carniglia Argentina 1969–1970Ercole Rabitti Italy 1970[o]Armando Picchi Italy 1970–1971Čestmír Vycpálek Czechoslovakia 1971–1974Carlo Parola Italy 1974–1976Giovanni Trapattoni Italy 1976–1986Rino Marchesi Italy 1986–1988Dino Zoff Italy 1988–1990Luigi Maifredi Italy 1990–1991Giovanni Trapattoni Italy 1991–1994Marcello Lippi Italy 1994–1999Carlo Ancelotti Italy 1999–2001Marcello Lippi Italy 2001–2004Fabio Capello Italy 2004–2006Didier Deschamps France 2006–2007Giancarlo Corradini Italy 2007[o]Claudio Ranieri Italy 2007–2009Ciro Ferrara Italy 2009–2010Alberto Zaccheroni Italy 2010Luigi Delneri Italy 2010–2011Antonio Conte Italy 2011–2014Massimiliano Allegri Italy 2014–2019Maurizio Sarri Italy 2019–2020Andrea Pirlo Italy 2020–2021Massimiliano Allegri Italy 2021–2024Paolo Montero Uruguay 2024[o]HonoursMain articles: List of Juventus FC honours and List of Juventus FC seasonsA partial view of the club\'s trophy room with the titles won between 1905 and 2013 at J-MuseumItaly\'s most successful club of the 20th century[21] and the most winning in the history of Italian football,[200] Juventus have won the Italian League Championship, the country\'s premier football club competitions and organised by Lega Nazionale Professionisti Serie A (LNPA), a record 36 times and have the records of consecutive triumphs in that tournament (nine, between 2011–12 and 2019–20).[38][201] They have also won the Coppa Italia, the country\'s primary single-elimination competitions, a record 15 times, becoming the first team to retain the trophy successfully with their triumph in the 1959–60 season, and the first to win it in three consecutive seasons from the 2014–15 season to the 2016–17 season, going on to win a fourth consecutive title in 2017–18 (also a record).[202] In addition, the club holds the record for Supercoppa Italiana wins with nine, the most recent coming in 2020.Overall, Juventus have won 71 official competitions,[p] more than any other club in the country: 60 at national level (which is also a record) and 11 at international stage,[203] making them, in the latter case, the second most successful Italian team.[204] The club is sixth in Europe and twelfth in the world with the most international title won officially recognised by their respective association football confederation and Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA).[q] In 1977, the Torinese side become the first in Southern Europe to have won the UEFA Cup and the first—and only to date—in Italian football history to achieve an international title with a squad composed by national footballers.[206] In 1993, the club won its third competition\'s trophy, an unprecedented feat in the continent until then, a confederation record for the next 22 years and the most for an Italian team. Juventus was also the first club in the country to achieve the title in the European Super Cup, having won the competitions in 1984 and the first European side to win the Intercontinental Cup in 1985, since it was restructured by Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) and Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol (CONMEBOL)\'s organizing committee five years beforehand.[18]The club has earned the distinction of being allowed to wear three golden stars (Italian: stelle d\'oro) on its shirts representing its league victories, the tenth of which was achieved during the 1957–58 season, the 20th in the 1981–82 season and the 30th in the 2013–14 season. Juventus were the first Italian team to have achieved the national double four times (winning the Italian top tier division and the national cup competitions in the same season), in the 1959–60, 1994–95, 2014–15 and 2015–16 season. In the 2015–16 season, Juventus won the Coppa Italia for the 11th time and their second-straight title, becoming the first team in Italy\'s history to complete Serie A and Coppa Italia doubles in back-to-back season; Juventus would go on to win another two consecutive doubles in 2016–17 and 2017–18.[108]Until the first Europa Conference League final in 2022, the club was unique in the world in having won all official confederation competitions[207][208] and they have received, in recognition to winning the three major UEFA competitions[44]—first case in the history of the European football and the only one to be reached with the same coach spell—[17] The UEFA Plaque by the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA) on 12 July 1988.[209][210]The Torinese side was placed seventh in the FIFA\'s century ranking of the best clubs in the world on 23 December 2000[20] and nine years later was ranked second best club in Europe during the 20th Century based on a statistical study series by International Federation of Football History & Statistics, the highest for an Italian club in both.[21]Juventus have been proclaimed World\'s Club Team of the Year twice (1993 and 1996)[211] and was ranked in 3rd place—the highest ranking of any Italian club—in the All-Time Club World Ranking (1991–2009 period) by the IFFHS.[r]Juventus F.C. honoursType Competitions Titles SeasonsDomestic Serie A 36 1905, 1925–26,[s] 1930–31, 1931–32, 1932–33, 1933–34, 1934–35, 1949–50, 1951–52, 1957–58 (), 1959–60, 1960–61, 1966–67, 1971–72, 1972–73, 1974–75, 1976–77, 1977–78, 1980–81, 1981–82 (), 1983–84, 1985–86, 1994–95, 1996–97, 1997–98, 2001–02, 2002–03, 2011–12, 2012–13, 2013–14 (), 2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2018–19, 2019–20Serie B 1 2006–07Coppa Italia 15 1937–38, 1941–42, 1958–59, 1959–60, 1964–65, 1978–79, 1982–83, 1989–90, 1994–95, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2017–18, 2020–21, 2023–24Supercoppa Italiana 9 1995, 1997, 2002, 2003, 2012, 2013, 2015, 2018, 2020Continental European Cup / UEFA Champions League 2 1984–85, 1995–96UEFA Cup Winners\' Cup 1 1983–84UEFA Cup / UEFA Europa League 3 1976–77, 1989–90, 1992–93European Super Cup / UEFA Super Cup 2 1984, 1996UEFA Intertoto Cup 1 1999Worldwide Intercontinental Cup 2 1985, 1996 RecordClub statistics and recordsMain article: List of Juventus F.C. records and statisticsSee also: Juventus F.C. in international footballAlessandro Del Piero made a record 705 appearances for Juventus, including 478 in Serie A and is the all-time leading goalscorer for the club, with 290 goals.Alessandro Del Piero holds Juventus\'s official appearance record of 705 appearances. He took over from Gaetano Scirea on 6 April 2008 against Palermo.[213] He also holds the record for Serie A appearances with 478. Including all official competitions, Del Piero is the all-time leading goalscorer for Juventus, with 290—since joining the club in 1993. Giampiero Boniperti, who was the all-time topscorer since 1961 comes in second in all competitions with 182. In the 1933–34 season, Felice Borel scored 31 goals in 34 appearances, setting the club record for Serie A goals in a single season. Ferenc Hirzer is the club\'s highest scorer in a single season with 35 goals in 24 appearances in the 1925–26 season. The most goals scored by a player in a single match is 6, which is also an Italian record. This was achieved by Omar Sívori in a game against Inter in the 1960–61 season.[32]The first ever official game participated in by Juventus was in the Third Federal Football Championship, the predecessor of Serie A, against Torinese in a Juventus loss 0–1. The biggest victory recorded by Juventus was 15–0 against Cento, in the second round of the 1926–27 Coppa Italia. In the league, Fiorentina and Fiumana were famously on the end of Juventus\'s biggest championship wins, with both beaten 11–0 in the 1928–29 season. Juventus\'s heaviest championship defeats came during the 1911–12 and 1912–13 seasons: they were against Milan in 1912 (1–8) and Torino in 1913 (0–8).[32]The signing of Gianluigi Buffon in 2001 from Parma cost Juventus €52 million (100 billion lire), making it the then-most expensive transfer for a goalkeeper of all-time until 2018.[214][215][216][217][218] On 20 March 2016, Buffon set a new Serie A record for the longest period without conceding a goal (974 minutes) in the Derby della Mole during the 2015–16 season.[219] On 26 July 2016, Argentine forward Gonzalo Higuaín became the third highest football transfer of all-time and highest ever transfer for an Italian club, at the time,[220] when he was signed by Juventus for €90 million from Napoli.[221] On 8 August 2016, Paul Pogba returned to his first club, Manchester United, for an all-time record for highest football transfer fee of €105 million, surpassing the former record holder Gareth Bale.[222] The sale of Zinedine Zidane from Juventus to Real Madrid of Spain in 2001 was the world football transfer record at the time, costing the Spanish club around €77.5 million (150 billion lire).[223][224] On 10 July 2018, Cristiano Ronaldo became the highest ever transfer for an Italian club with his €100 million transfer from Real Madrid.[225]UEFA club coefficient rankingAs of 22 April 2021[226]Rank Team Points1 Germany Bayern Munich 134.0002 Spain Real Madrid 126.0003 Spain Barcelona 122.0004 Italy Juventus 120.0005 England Manchester City 120.0006 Spain Atletico Madrid 115.0007 France Paris Saint-Germain 113.000Contribution to the Italy national teamMain article: Juventus F.C. and the Italy national football teamOverall, Juventus are the club that has contributed the most players to the Italy national team in history,[227] being the only Italian club that has contributed players to every Italy national team since the 2nd FIFA World Cup.[228] Juventus have contributed numerous players to Italy\'s World Cup campaigns, these successful periods principally have coincided with two golden ages of the Turin club\'s history, referred as Quinquennio d\'Oro (The Golden Quinquennium), from 1931 until 1935, and Ciclo Leggendario (The Legendary Cycle), from 1972 to 1986.Below are a list of Juventus players who represented the Italy national team during World Cup winning tournaments.[229]1934 FIFA World Cup (9): Gianpiero Combi, Virginio Rosetta, Luigi Bertolini, Felice Borel IIº, Umberto Caligaris, Giovanni Ferrari, Luis Monti, Raimundo Orsi and Mario Varglien Iº1938 FIFA World Cup (2): Alfredo Foni and Pietro Rava1982 FIFA World Cup (6): Dino Zoff, Antonio Cabrini, Claudio Gentile, Paolo Rossi, Gaetano Scirea and Marco Tardelli2006 FIFA World Cup (5): Fabio Cannavaro, Gianluigi Buffon, Mauro Camoranesi, Alessandro Del Piero and Gianluca ZambrottaTwo Juventus players have won the golden boot award at the World Cup with Italy, Paolo Rossi in 1982 and Salvatore Schillaci in 1990. As well as contributing to Italy\'s World Cup winning sides, two Juventus players Alfredo Foni and Pietro Rava, represented Italy in the gold medal-winning squad at the 1936 Summer Olympics.Seven Juventus players represented their nation during the 1968 European Championship win for Italy: Sandro Salvadore, Ernesto Càstano and Giancarlo Bercellino.[230] and four in the UEFA Euro 2020: Giorgio Chiellini, Leonardo Bonucci, Federico Bernardeschi and Federico Chiesa; a national record.The Torinese club has also contributed to a lesser degree to the national sides of other nations due to the limitations pre-Bosman rule (1995). Zinedine Zidane and captain Didier Deschamps were Juventus players when they won the 1998 World Cup with France, as well as Blaise Matuidi in the 2018 World Cup, and the Argentines Ángel Di María and Leandro Paredes in 2022, making it as the association football club which supplied the most FIFA World Cup winners globally (27).[231][28] Three Juventus players have also won the European Championship with a nation other than Italy, Luis del Sol won it in 1964 with Spain, while the Frenchmen Michel Platini and Zidane won the competition in 1984 and 2000 respectively.[232]Financial informationJuventus Football Club S.p.A.Company type Public (Società per azioni)Traded as BIT: JUVELSE: 0H65Predecessor Sport-Club Juventus (1897)Foot-Ball Club Juventus (1900)Juventus (1936)Juventus Cisitalia (1943)Juventus Football Club (1945)Founded Turin, Italy (August 1949; 74 years ago, as società a responsabilità limitata)Key people Gianluca Ferrero (President)Maurizio Scanavino (CEO)Revenue Decrease €480,711,754 (2020-21)€573,424,092 (2019–20)Operating income Decrease €-197,194,261 (2020-21)−67,060,716 (2019–20)Net income Decrease €-209.885.432 (2020–21)−89,682,106 (2019–20)Total assets Decrease €907,811,109 (2020–21)€1,176,876,224 (2019–20)Total equity Decrease €28,438,822 (2020–21)€239.204.587 (2019–20)Owner Agnelli family(through EXOR N.V.) 63.8%Lindsell Train Investment Fund 11.9%Public floating 24.3%Number of employees Decrease 870 (2020–21)915 (2019–20)Website juventus.comFootnotes / references[233]Founded as an association, in 1923, during the Edoardo Agnelli presidency, the club, at the time ruled by an assemblea di soci (membership assembly), became one of the first in the country to acquire professional status ante litteram, starting also the longest and most uninterrupted society in Italian sports history between a club and a private investor. Juventus was restructured as the football section of multisports parent company Juventus – Organizzazione Sportiva S.A. since the constitution of the later in that year to 1943, when it was merged with another three Torinese enterprises for founding the Compagnia Industriale Sportiva Italia (CISITALIA). In that twenty years Juventus progressive competed in different disciplines such as tennis, swimming, ice hockey, and bocce, gaining success in the first cited. After a long liquidation process of the automotive corporation started after the Italian Civil War (1945), all Juventus O.S.A. sections were closed with the exception of football and tennis, which were demerged. The football section, then called Juventus Cisitalia for sponsorship reasons, was renamed Juventus Football Club and the Agnelli family, which some members have held different executive charges inside the club for the past six years,[12] obtained the club\'s majority shares after industrialist Piero Dusio, Cisitalia owner, transferred his capital shares in the ending of the decade.[234] Juventus has been constituted as an independent società a responsabilità limitata (S.r.l.), a type of private limited company, in August 1949 and supervised by a consiglio d\'amministrazione (board of directors) since then.[235]On 27 June 1967, the Torinese club changed its legal corporate status to società per azioni (S.p.A.)[236] and on 3 December 2001 it became the third in the country to has been listed on the Borsa Italiana after Lazio and Roma;[237] since that date until 19 September 2011, Juventus\'s stock took part of the Segmento Titoli con Alti Requisiti (STAR), one of the main market segment in the world.[238] Since October 2016 to December 2018,[239] and again since March 2020,[240] The club\'s stock is iscrited in the FTSE Italia Mid Cap stock market index of the Mercato Telematico Azionario (MTA); previously, between December 2018 and March 2020, it was listed in the FTSE MIB index.[241] The club has also a secondary listing on Borsa\'s sister stock exchange based in London.As of 29 October 2021, Juventus\'s shares are distributed between 63.8% to the Agnelli family through EXOR N.V., a holding part of the Giovanni Agnelli and C.S.a.p.a Group, 11.9% to Lindsell Train Investment Trust Ltd. and 24.3% distributed to other stakeholders (<3% each)[242][243] though the Associazione Piccoli Azionisti della Juventus Football Club, created in 2010 and composed by more 40,000 affiliated,[244] including investors as the Royal Bank of Scotland, the Norway Government Pension Fund Global, one sovereign wealth fund,[245] the California Public Employees\' Retirement System (CalPERS) and the investment management corporation BlackRock.[246]From 1 July 2008, the club has implemented a safety management system for employees and athletes in compliance with the requirements of international OHSAS 18001:2007 regulation[247] and a Safety Management System in the medical sector according to the international ISO 9001:2000 resolution.[248]The club is one of the founding members of the European Club Association (ECA), which was formed after the merge of the G-14, an independent group of selected European clubs with international TV rights purposes, with the European Clubs Forum (ECF), a clubs\' task force ruled by UEFA composed by 102 members,[249] which Juventus was a founder and permanent member by sporting merits, respectively.[250]Juventus was placed seventh in the global ranking drawn up by the British consultancy organisation Brand Finance in terms of brand power, where it was rated with a credit rating AAA (\"extremely strong\") with a score of 86.1 out of 100,[251] as well as eleventh in terms of brand value (€705 million)[252] and ninth by enterprise value (€2294 billion as of 24 May 2022).[253] All this made I Bianconeri, in 2015, the country\'s second sports club—first in football—after Scuderia Ferrari by brand equity.[254]According to the Deloitte Football Money League, a research published by consultants Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu in March 2022, Juventus is the ninth-highest earning football club in the world with an estimated revenue of €433.5 million as of 30 June 2021[255] and, on 2002, the club reached the second position overall, the highest-ever achieved for a Serie A team, a ranking which they retained for the following two years.[256] It is ranked in the ninth place on Forbes\' list of the most valuable football clubs at international level with an estimate value of US$2450 million (€2279 million as of 31 May 2021), and, in May 2016, it became the first football club in the country to cross the billion euro mark.[257] Finally, in both rankings, it is placed as the first Italian club.[258]On 14 September 2020, Juventus officially announced that Raffles Family Office, a Hong Kong-based multi-family office would be the club\'s Regional Partner in Asia for the next three years.[259]Kit suppliers and shirt sponsorsWikimedia Commons has media related to Juventus F.C. kits.Period Kit manufacturer Shirt sponsor (chest) Shirt sponsor (back) Shirt sponsor (sleeve)1979–1989 Kappa Ariston — —1989–1992 UPIM1992–1995 Danone1995–1998 Sony1998–1999 D+ (domestic)Tele+ (Europe)1999–2000 D+ (domestic league/cup away)CanalSatellite (domestic cup home)Sony (Europe)2000–2001 CiaoWeb (domestic league/Europe)Lotto (domestic cup)Tele+ (domestic league/cup home)Sportal.com (Europe/domestic cup away)2001–2002 Lotto Fastweb (domestic league)Tu Mobile (domestic cup/Europe)2002–2003 Fastweb (domestic league)Tamoil (domestic cup/Europe)2003–2004 Nike2004–2005 Sky Sport (domestic league)Tamoil (domestic cup/Europe)2005–2007 Tamoil2007–2010 New Holland2010–2012 Betclic (domestic home/Europe)Balocco (domestic away)2012–2015 Jeep2015–2017 Adidas2017–2022 Cygames2022–2023 Bitget2023–2024 ZondacryptoKit dealsKit supplier Period Contractannouncement Contractduration Value NotesAdidas2015–present 24 October 20132015–2019 (4 years) €23.25 million per year[260] Original contract terms: Total €139.5 million / 2015–2021 (6 years)[261]The contract was prematurely extended under improved termsat the end of the 2018–2019 season21 December 20182019–2027 (8 years) Total €408 million[262][263](€51 million per year) Multisport activitiesThe club was involved in various sports activities at different times until the late 1970s. Initially, from its foundation until 1899, it had sections for cycling, athletics, wrestling, and running.In the early 1920s, Juventus expanded its sports involvement, led by President Edoardo Agnelli. This led to the creation of Juventus Organizzazione Sportiva Anonima, which participated in various national championships in disciplines such as bowls, swimming, ice hockey, and tennis until its dissolution after World War II, with tennis being the most successful. Juventus achieved its greatest successes with the tennis section.[264] In the late 1960s, a skiing section named Sporting Club Juventus was established, based in Castagneto Po and active throughout the following decade.[265][266]In the 2017–2018 season, Juventus established a women\'s football section with a team in the Serie A women\'s championship.[267][268] The Women\'s team won the league in their debut season, mirroring the achievement of the men\'s team and becoming the first Italian club to hold both major national football championships, male and female, simultaneously.[269] This success continued for the next two seasons.[270][271]Since 2019, the club has had an eSports section.[272][273] In 2021, the team won the eFootball.Pro, a prominent eSports competition for club teams worldwide.[274] In the same year, they also claimed the TIMVISION Cup | eSports Edition, the first digital edition of the Italian Cup organized by the Lega Serie A.[275] In 2023, under the name Juventus Dsyre – in collaboration with the eSports team of the same name[276] – they secured their first Italian championship title in the eSerie A TIM, the virtual version of Serie A organized by the Lega Serie A.[277]See alsoDynasties in Italian football[broken anchor]List of football clubs in Italy by major honours wonList of sports clubs inspired by othersList of world champion football clubsPortals:icon Association footballflag ItalyNotes The literal translation of bianconeri is \"whiteblacks\". However, \"black and whites\" is also commonly used. The founding date of Juventus is unknown; conventionally, 1 November 1897 is used.[1][2] Called \"Sporting tradition\" (Italian: Tradizione sportiva), it is the historical ranking made by Federazione Italiana Giuoco Calcio (FIGC) based on the weighted score of the official titles won by the clubs in the seasonal competitions since 1898 and the overall seasons in which it has participated in the first three professional levels since the creation of the round-robin tournament (1929). The governing body of Italian football often uses it in promotion and relegation and broadcast cases.[8] As of June 2020, Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), based in its own coefficient\'s standard calculation procedure, applies two points for each match won and one point for each point drawn in European Champions\' Cup and Champions League, UEFA Cup and Europa League, UEFA Super Cup, Cup Winners\' Cup, UEFA Intertoto Cup and Intercontinental Cup for historical-statistical purposes; not considering the introduction of three points for a match won at international level in 1994–95 season.[10] During the Italian resistance against Nazi-fascism (1943–1945), the club, at the time a multisports association, was controlled by Torinese industrialist and former Juventus player Piero Dusio through car house Cisitalia; however, various members of the Agnelli family have held various positions at executive level in the club since 1939.[12] Excluding competitions organised by a private committee not related with a governing body such as the Inter-Cities Fairs Cup or the Mitropa Cup. Frédéric Dick, a son of Alfred Dick, was a Swiss footballer and joined the team of the Juventus that won the tournament of the Second Category in 1905. The other club was Barcelona with its captain, the Argentinian star Lionel Messi. Messi was awarded Ballon d\'Or for four years in a row from 2009 to 2013.[42] Without considering the penalty, Juventus would have qualified to the Champions League with 72 points. The zebra is Juventus\' official mascot because the black and white vertical stripes in its present home jersey and emblem remembered the zebra\'s stripes. Presidential Committee of War. Honorary chairman. Chairmen on interim charge. Also current honorary chairmen. On interim charge. Including exclusively the official titles won during its participation in the top flight of Italian football. Sixth most successful European club for confederation and FIFA competitions won with 11 titles. Sixth most successful club in Europe for confederation club competition titles won (11).[205] Additionally, since the 1990–91 season to the 2008–09 season, Juventus have won 15 official trophies: five Serie A titles, one Coppa Italia title, four Supercoppa Italiana titles, one Intercontinental Cup, one European Champions\' Cup-UEFA Champions League, one UEFA Cup, one UEFA Intertoto Cup and one UEFA Super Cup.[212] Up until 1921, the top division of Italian football was the Federal Football Championship. Since then, it has been the First Division, the National Division and the Serie A.References \"1° novembre 1897, nasce la Juventus: dal rosanero alla prima vittoria\". Eurosport (in Italian). 1 November 2018. Archived from the original on 29 August 2022. Retrieved 29 August 2022. \"Juventus: storia, trofei, aneddoti e prossime partite del club bianconero\". DAZN (in Italian). 26 May 2022. Archived from the original on 29 August 2022. Retrieved 29 August 2022. \"The story of a legend\". 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Retrieved 1 November 2014. \"Al Ahly é o clube com mais títulos internacionais; São Paulo é o 7º\". Placar (in Portuguese). 21 February 2014. Archived from the original on 11 March 2014. Retrieved 12 March 2014. \"Which teams have played the most UEFA games?\". Union des Associations Européennes de Football. 2 June 2020. Archived from the original on 10 February 2021. Retrieved 9 February 2021. Manzo & Peirone (2006, p. 86) Tranfaglia & Zunino (1998, p. 193) Hazard & Gould 2001, pp. 209, 215. \"Breathing in football and Alpine air in Turin\". Union des Associations Européennes de Football. 8 January 2015. Archived from the original on 9 October 2017. Retrieved 23 May 2017. Deloitte Sports Business Group (January 2017). Planet Football (PDF). Deloitte Touche Tohmatsu Ltd. p. 5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 November 2017. {{cite book}}: |author= has generic name (help); |work= ignored (help) \"Juventus Football Club\" (in Italian). Borsa Italiana S.p.A. 14 April 2015. Archived from the original on 12 January 2015. \"Giovanni Trapattoni\". Union des Associations Européennes de Football. 31 May 2010. Archived from the original on 3 July 2011. Retrieved 27 December 2010. \"1985: Juventus end European drought\". Union des Associations Européennes de Football. 8 December 1985. Archived from the original on 8 December 2013. Paul Saffer (10 April 2016). \"Paris aim to join multiple trophy winners\". Union des Associations Européennes de Football. Archived from the original on 3 June 2017. \"The FIFA Club of the Century\" (PDF). Fédération Internationale de Football Association. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 April 2007. Retrieved 28 May 2014. \"Europe\'s Club of the Century\". International Federation of Football History & Statistics. 10 September 2009. Archived from the original on 24 May 2012. Demos & Pi (2016, pp. 3, 10) AA.VV. (2016) [2015]. Sports DNA. Repucom S.A., cf. also Bilancio di sostenibilità (2016, p. 7) Hazard & Gould 2001, p. 209. Giovanni De Luna. 100 secondi: Nasce la Juventus. RAI Storia (in Italian). Event occurs at 0:01:13. Archived from the original on 10 August 2017. Sappino 2000, pp. 712–713, 1491–1492. Peter Staunton (10 July 2010). \"Ten World Cup teams influenced by one club\". NBC Sports. Archived from the original on 13 July 2010. Retrieved 23 October 2010. \"La Juventus, grazie all\'Argentina, è il club con più campioni del mondo in squadra\". La Repubblica (in Italian). 19 December 2022. Archived from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 23 January 2023. \"Storia della Juventus Football Club\". magicajuventus.com (in Italian). Archived from the original on 21 January 2008. Retrieved 8 July 2007. \"Juventus Football Club: The History\". Juventus Football Club S.p.A. official website. Archived from the original on 29 July 2008. Retrieved 9 August 2008. \"11/03/1900 Juventus-Torinese F.C. 0–1, Campionato Federale 1899–1900\". www.juworld.net. Archived from the original on 23 June 2021. Retrieved 17 June 2021. Modena, Panini Edizioni (2005). Almanacco Illustrato del Calcio – La Storia 1898–2004. \"FIFA Classic Rivalries: Torino vs Juventus\". Fédération Internationale de Football Association. Archived from the original on 14 December 2011. Retrieved 29 June 2007. Papa & Panico 1993, p. 271. \"Italy – International matches 1930–1939\". The Record Sport Soccer Statistics Foundation. Archived from the original on 16 January 2009. Retrieved 4 January 2009. \"Campioni del mondo in bianconero\". Juventus.com (in Italian). 8 June 2018. Archived from the original on 23 January 2023. Retrieved 23 January 2023. \"Tanti auguri, Presidente!\" (in Italian). Juventus Football Club S.p.A. official website. Archived from the original on 6 July 2009. Retrieved 3 July 2009. \"Albo d\'oro Serie A TIM\". Lega Nazionale Professionisti Serie A (in Italian). Archived from the original on 18 October 2010. Retrieved 21 May 2012. Glanville 2005, p. 263. \"European Footballer of the Year (\'Ballon d\'Or\')\". The Record Sport Soccer Statistics Foundation. Archived from the original on 16 January 2009. Retrieved 8 June 2007. \"List of the Ballon d\'Or Winners\". Topend Sports. Archived from the original on 10 August 2015. Retrieved 1 July 2015. \"List of the Ballon d\'Or Winners\". www.topendsports.com. Archived from the original on 27 October 2019. Retrieved 27 October 2019. \"Olsson urges anti-racism action\". Union des Associations Européennes de Football. 13 May 2005. Archived from the original on 14 March 2013. Retrieved 22 January 2011. \"Un dilema histórico\". El Mundo Deportivo (in Spanish). 23 September 2003. Archived from the original on 20 September 2011. Retrieved 23 September 2008. \"Giovanni Trapattoni\". Union des Associations Européennes de Football. 31 May 2010. Archived from the original on 3 July 2011. Retrieved 27 December 2010. \"1985: Juventus end European drought\". Union des Associations Européennes de Football. 8 December 1985. Archived from the original on 8 December 2013. Retrieved 26 February 2013. The Technician (UEFA) 2010, p. 5. Saffer, Paul (10 April 2016). \"Paris aim to join multiple trophy winners\". Union des Associations Européennes de Football. Archived from the original on 3 June 2017. Retrieved 23 January 2023. Goldblatt 2007, p. 602. \"Tris bianconero nel segno del Divin Codino\". Storie di Calcio (in Italian). Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 10 August 2015. \"1995/96: Juve hold their nerve\". Union des Associations Européennes de Football. 22 May 1996. Archived from the original on 3 January 2012. \"1996: Dazzling Juve shine in Paris\". Union des Associations Européennes de Football. 1 March 1997. Archived from the original on 31 March 2017. \"Toyota Cup 1996\". Fédération Internationale de Football Association. 26 November 1996. Archived from the original on 21 January 2012. Agresti, Romeo (31 May 2017). \"Champions League Exclusive: Real Madrid hero Mijatovic tells Juventus fans his famous goal was onside\". Goal.com. Archived from the original on 31 May 2022. Retrieved 23 May 2022. \"Lippi: Mijatovic\'s goal in 1998 Champions League final was definitely offside\". Marca. 20 May 2020. Archived from the original on 31 May 2022. Retrieved 23 May 2022. \"UEFA Champions League 1996–97: Final\". Union des Associations Européennes de Football. 28 May 1997. Archived from the original on 4 February 2010. \"UEFA Champions League 1997–98: Final\". Union des Associations Européennes de Football. 20 May 1997. Archived from the original on 4 February 2010. \"Italian trio relegated to Serie B\". BBC. 14 July 2006. Archived from the original on 14 July 2006. Retrieved 14 July 2006. Boffi, Emanuele (29 July 2006). \"Calciopoli. E se lo scandalo fosse il modo con cui ce l\'hanno raccontato?\". Tempi (in Italian). Archived from the original on 31 May 2022. Retrieved 23 May 2022. Di Santo, Giampiero (27 April 2007). \"Calciopoli, la Cupola era una bufala\". Italia Oggi (in Italian). Archived from the original on 31 May 2022. Retrieved 23 May 2022. The suspicion, in short, is that the path of summary justice was chosen, to eliminate from the scene characters like Moggi, ultimately expelled from Juve and then condemned by sports justice based on wiretapping which, are the words of the sentences, did not prove none of the allegations. Based on the first interceptions ordered by the Turin\'s public prosecutor and prosecutor Raffaele Guariniello, who had ordered the dismissal of the investigation opened for alleged sports fraud already in July 2005 on the grounds that, for the crime in question, \'are not allowed.\' The prosecutor had underlined the \'weakness of the accusatory hypothesis.\' Yet, according to the authors, the investigation that led to the commissioner of the FIGC, the landing in via Allegri of Guido Rossi, and the new head of the investigation office, Francesco Saverio Borrelli, started from that weak accusatory hypothesis, to the involvement of referees and designators, of six first and second row clubs (in addition to Juve, Milan, Fiorentina, Lazio, Reggina and Arezzo) and, finally, to the real sentence for a few. Indeed, only for Moggi and Juve, kicked out and relegated to B. Cambiaghi, Emilio; Dent, Arthur (2007). Il processo illecito (PDF) (1st ed.). Stampa Indipendente. pp. 5–6, 47–57. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 December 2021. Retrieved 23 May 2022 – via Ju29ro, 15 April 2010. Zunnino, Corrado (27 July 2006). \"Salvati perché la gente voleva così\". La Repubblica (in Italian). Archived from the original on 30 May 2022. Retrieved 23 May 2022. \'We recognized everything about the CAF ruling, apart from two episodes: the falsified championship, the repeated offences of Juventus, [and] the existence of a system.\' Cambiaghi, Emilio; Dent, Arthur (2007). Il processo illecito (PDF) (1st ed.). Stampa Indipendente. p. 52. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 December 2021. Retrieved 23 May 2022 – via Ju29ro, 15 April 2010. \'Ours is a purely statistical study. We are not interested, nor are we able to establish, if Moggi and the other executives under investigation could influence the matches, but from our point of view we can highlight three hypotheses more than valid: either there was no referee conditioning in the 2004–05 championship, or it existed but did not produce relevant results, or it\'s possible to think of a clash between executives for the acquisition of the football system that gave rise to winning and losing clubs in that which we can define as a \'parallel championship\'. Vaciago, Guido (28 July 2015). \"Cassazione: \'Sistema inquinato\'. Ma non spiega i misteri di Calciopoli\". Tuttosport (in Italian). Archived from the original on 31 May 2022. Retrieved 23 May 2022. Justice decided that Moggi and Giraudo actually \'polluted\' the system, it decided so in 2006 and did not want to know or understand other truths. Indeed, it had already decided it during the investigations, when all the phone calls that could exonerate or alleviate the position of Juventus\' executives had not been taken into consideration, to the point of dismantling the very concept of the Cupola. Moggi and Giraudo, therefore, \'polluted\' the system: a term that serves to dodge the fact that no judge has ever returned enough evidence to affirm that championship (the subject of investigation was only 2004–05) has actually been altered. Indeed, in the first instance sentence we basically read the opposite. Castellani, Massimiliano (8 November 2011). \"Gazzoni Frascara: \'Fiorentina e Juve mi devono 70 milioni. Calciopoli...\'\". Avvenire (in Italian). Archived from the original on 29 May 2022. Retrieved 18 May 2022 – via Fiorentina.it. \'... [Juventus] was acquitted in the ordinary [justice] proceedings as Moggi himself also acted out of personal interest [to favour Lazio and Fiorentina].\' Rossini, Claudio (5 March 2014). \"Calciopoli e la verità di comodo\". Blasting News (in Italian). Archived from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 24 January 2023. Juventus has been acquitted, the offending championships (2004/2005 and 2005/2006) have been declared regular, and the reasons for the conviction of Luciano Moggi are vague; mostly, they condemn his position, that he was in a position to commit a crime. In short, be careful to enter a shop without surveillance because even if you don\'t steal, you would have had the opportunity. And go on to explain to your friends that you\'re honest people after the moroffer and pro-sales campaign of the newspapers. ... a club has been acquitted, and no one has heard of it, and whoever has heard of it, they don\'t accept it. The verdict of 2006, made in a hurry, was acceptable, that of Naples was not. The problem then lies not so much in vulgar journalism as in readers who accept the truths that are convenient. Juventus was, rightly or wrongly, the best justification for the failures of others, and it was in popular sentiment, as evidenced by the new controversies concerning \'The System.\' But how? Wasn\'t the rotten erased? The referees since 2006 make mistakes in good faith, the word of Massimo Moratti (the only \'honest\'). ... it isn\'t a question of tifo, but of a critical spirit, of the desire to deepen and not be satisfied with the headlines (as did Oliviero Beha, a well-known Viola [Fiorentina] fan, who, however, drew conclusions outside the chorus because, despite enjoying it as a tifoso, he suffered as a journalist. He wasn\'t satisfied and went into depth. He was one of the few). \"Juventus to appeal sentence despite FIFA threats\". ESPN FC. 24 August 2006. Archived from the original on 29 October 2006. Retrieved 25 August 2006. Casula, Andrea (9 May 2007). \"Looking \'Inter\' Calciopoli – A Juve Fan Wants Justice\". Goal.com. Archived from the original on 12 May 2007. Retrieved 9 December 2022. Gregorace, Francesco (2 April 2014). \"Calciopoli – Tifosi juventini contro Cobolli Gigli: se solo non avesse ritirato il ricorso...\" CalcioWeb (in Italian). Archived from the original on 10 December 2022. Retrieved 23 May 2022. Cambiaghi, Emilio; Dent, Arthur (2007). Il processo illecito (PDF) (1st ed.). Stampa Indipendente. pp. 9–10. Archived (PDF) from the original on 31 January 2023. Retrieved 24 January 2023 – via Ju29ro, 15 April 2010. The Juventus defence, among other things, objects that a sum of several Articles 1 (unfair and dishonest sporting conduct) cannot lead to an indictment for Article 6 (sporting offence), using for example the metaphor that so many defamations do not carry a murder conviction: an unimpeachable objection. ... Hence the grotesque concept of \'standings altered without any match-fixing\'. The \'Calciopoli\' rulings state that there is no match-fixing. That the championship under investigation, 2004–2005, is to be considered regular. But that the Juventus management has achieved effective standings advantages for Juventus FC even without altering the individual matches. In practice, Juventus was convicted of murder, with no one dead, no evidence, no accomplices, no murder weapon. Only for the presence of a hypothetical motive. Sarica, Federico (10 July 2011). \"Calciopoli, il sentimento popolare\". Rivista Studio (in Italian). Archived from the original on 31 May 2022. Retrieved 23 May 2022. Garganese, Carlo (17 June 2011). \"Revealed: The Calciopoli evidence that shows Luciano Moggi is the victim of a witch-hunt\". Goal.com. Archived from the original on 17 February 2015. Retrieved 23 May 2022. Capuano, Giovanni (24 March 2015). \"La prescrizione cancella Calciopoli. Juve, Moggi e scudetti: cosa succede adesso?\". Panorama (in Italian). Retrieved 23 May 2022. Ingram, Sam (20 December 2021). \"Calciopoli Scandal: Referee Designators As Desired Pawns\". ZicoBall. Archived from the original on 1 July 2022. Retrieved 16 May 2022. FIGC\'s actions in relegating Juventus and handing the title to Inter Milan were somewhat peculiar. Of course, Moggi and Juventus deserved punishment; that is not up for dispute. However, the severity of the ruling and the new location for the Scudetto was unprecedented and arguably should never have happened. The final ruling in the Calciopoli years later judged that Juventus had never breached article 6. As a result, the Serie A champions should never have encountered a shock 1–1 draw away to Rimini in the season\'s curtain-raiser. Nor should they have trounced Piacenza 4–0 in Turin or handed a 5–1 thrashing away to Arezzo in Tuscany. The findings stated that some club officials had violated article 6, but none had originated from Juventus. FIGC created a structured article violation with their decision-making. This means that instead of finding an article 6 breach, several article 1 violations were pieced together to create evidence damning to warrant relegation from Italy\'s top flight. Article 1 violations in Italian football usually command fines, bans, or points deductions, but certainly not relegation. Hafez, Shamoon (5 October 2019). \"Calciopoli: The scandal that rocked Italy\". BBC. Archived from the original on 31 May 2022. Retrieved 23 May 2022. West, Aaron (15 July 2016). \"10 years on: Juventus\' relegation from Serie A, the Calciopoli scandal, and the redemption\". Fox Sports. Archived from the original on 31 May 2022. Retrieved 23 May 2022. Voakes, Kris (7 May 2012). \"The end of a long, dark road: A timeline of Juventus\' recovery from Calciopoli relegation to Serie A champions\". Goal.com. 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Mahoney, Tony (31 March 2015). \"Tavecchio tells Juventus: Drop €443m lawsuit and we\'ll talk about your two Scudetti\". Goal.com. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. Retrieved 23 January 2023. \"Calciopoli, Cassazione: \'Moggi? Strapotere su Figc e tv\'\". La Gazzetta dello Sport. Archived from the original on 26 September 2015. Retrieved 10 September 2015. Capasso, Stefano (7 February 2012). \"Motivazioni sentenza Calciopoli: \'Il campionato 2004/2005 è stato regolare\'\". Calcio Blog (in Italian). Archived from the original on 25 January 2023. Retrieved 24 January 2023. \'Neither can we overlook the data of the resizing of the scope of the accusation which derives from the partiality with which the events of the 2004/2005 championship were examined, to run after only Moggi\'s misdeeds, of which modalities have been ascertained, as regards the sports fraud, to the limit of the existence of the crime of attempt, with the consequent further difficulty of hooking up to the responsibility of the employer, supplier of the occasion for the criminal action.\' Beha, Oliviero (7 February 2012). \"Il \'caso Moggi\' e le colpe della stampa: non fa inchieste, (di)pende dai verbali, non sa leggere le sentenze\". Tiscali (in Italian). Archived from the original on 12 March 2012. Retrieved 22 June 2021. ... the motivations in 558 pages are summarized as follows. 1) Championships not altered (therefore championships unjustly taken away from Juve...), matches not fixed, referees not corrupted, investigations conducted incorrectly by the investigators of the Public Prosecutor\'s Office (interceptions of the Carabinieri which were even manipulated in the confrontation in the Chamber). 2) The SIM cards, the foreign telephone cards that Moggi has distributed to some referees and designators, would be proof of the attempt to alter and condition the system, even without the effective demonstration of the rigged result. 3) Moggi\'s attitude, like a real \'telephone\' boss, is invasive even when he tries to influence the [Italian Football Federation] and the national team, see the phone calls with Carraro and Lippi. 4) That these phone calls and this \'mafia\' or \'sub-mafia\' promiscuity aimed at \'creating criminal associations\' turned out to be common practice in the environment as is evident, does not acquit Moggi and C.: and therefore here is the sentence. ... Finally point 1), the so-called positive part of the motivations, that is, in fact everything is regular. And then the scandal of \'Scommettopoli\' [the Italian football scandal of 2011] in which it\'s coming out that the 2010–2011 championship [won by Milan] as a whole with tricks is to be considered really and decidedly irregular? The Chief Prosecutor of Cremona, Di Martino, says so for now, while sports justice takes its time as always, but I fear that many will soon repeat it, unless everything is silenced. With all due respect to those who want the truth and think that Moggi has objectively become the \'scapegoat\'. Does the framework of information that does not investigate, analyze, compare, and take sides out of ignorance or bias seem slightly clearer to you? Vaciago, Guido (28 July 2015). \"Cassazione: \'Sistema inquinato\'. Ma non spiega i misteri di Calciopoli\". Tuttosport (in Italian). Archived from the original on 31 May 2022. Retrieved 23 May 2022. However, the accusatory castle exists, built with interceptions expertly selected by the 170,000. That is, there are the famous \'barbecues\', or the telephone calls between Moggi and the Bergamo designator, during which the two established the referees to be included in the drawing scheme. Phone calls that have particularly affected the Cassation which cites them as an example of pollution. In short, the fact that other managers (Meani from Milan, Facchetti from Inter, just to give an example, but the list could be long) also called Bergamo to plead their case and explicitly ask this or that referee isn\'t taken into consideration (Collina, for example...). But then, how many domes were there? The Cassation does not tell us, even if it admits between the lines that \'the system of preparing the grids was quite widespread\' and admits that the developments of the behaviors of Meani and Facchetti (explicitly mentioned) \'were not investigated in depth\'. \"Moggi ban confirmed\". 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Retrieved 22 January 2023. During the exposition of his defensive line, the Juventus lawyer Nicola Apa asked that the revocation procedure be rejected for a formal question. The public prosecutor\'s office allegedly exceeded the time limit for presenting the request. As emerged from press articles, the public prosecutor\'s office had contacted the Turin prosecutors on 26 October and on 27 October the news of a visit to Turin by a prosecutor\'s envoy had spread. So the first new facts would have come into the possession of the prosecution at the end of October. And the sporting justice code prescribes a 30-day deadline for submitting the revocation request, which arrived, however, only on December 22, i.e. 56 days later. \"Il \'boicottaggio\' dei tifosi juventini a Sky e Dazn è solo la punta dell\'iceberg: ecco perchè la pioggia di disdette può andare oltre la protesta...\" TuttoMercatoWeb (in Italian). 22 January 2023. Archived from the original on 22 January 2023. 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Brand Finance plc. 24 May 2022.External linksJuventus FCat Wikipedia\'s sister projectsDefinitions from WiktionaryMedia from CommonsNews from WikinewsQuotations from WikiquoteOfficial website Edit this at Wikidata (in Italian, English, Spanish, Indonesian, Portuguese, Arabic, Japanese, and Chinese)Juventus F.C. at Serie A (in English and Italian)Juventus F.C. at UEFAvteJuventus Football and statisticsIn international competitionsCurrent seasonHistory Foundation and historical evolutionSeasonsContribution to Italy national teams (Nazio-JuveBlocco-Juve)Home stadium Juventus Stadium (2011–present)Stadio Olimpico di Torino (2006–2011)Stadio Delle Alpi (1990–2006)Stadio Comunale (1933–1990)Campo Juventus (1922–1933)Stadio di Corso Sebastopoli (1908–1922)Stadio Motovelodromo Umberto I (1905–1906)Training ground Juventus Training Center (Vinovo) (2006–present)Juventus Training Center (Turin) (2018–present)Other facilities J-Museum (2012–present)J-Medical (2016–present)J-Village (2017–present)Villar Perosa (1959–present)Media JTV (2006–present)Hurrà Juventus (1915–present)Supporters Juventus ultrasPiazza San CarloHeysel Stadium disaster (1985)Turin stampede (2017)Rivalries teams Squads Juventus Next Gen (2018–present)Juventus Women (2017–present)Youth SectorStadia Stadio Giuseppe Moccagatta (2019–present)Popular culture Becoming Zlatan (2015)Black and White Stripes: The Juventus Story (2016)First Team: Juventus (2018)All or Nothing: Juventus (2021) Category CommonsLinks to related articlesvteJuventus FC – current squad1 Szczęsny2 De Sciglio3 Bremer4 Gatti5 Locatelli6 Danilo (c)7 Chiesa9 Vlahović11 Kostić14 Milik15 Yıldız16 McKennie19 Thuram20 Miretti21 Fagioli22 Weah23 Pinsoglio24 Rugani27 Cambiaso32 Cabal33 Djaló36 Perin41 Caviglia— Di Gregorio— Douglas Luiz— SouléManager: MottavteJuventus FC matchesNational Italian Football Championship Finals 190319041926Coppa Italia Finals Italiana UEFA Champions League Finals Cup Winners\' Cup Final 1984UEFA Cup Finals 1977199019931995UEFA Intertoto Cup Final 1999UEFA Super Cup 198419851996Intercontinental Cup 197319851996Other matches 1911 Sir Thomas Lipton Trophy Final1951 Copa Rio final1965 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup final1971 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup final1999 Champions League semi-final, second leg v. 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FC Magdeburg1974–75: Soviet Union Dynamo Kyiv1975–76: Belgium Anderlecht1976–77: West Germany Hamburger SV1977–78: Belgium Anderlecht1978–79: Spain Barcelona1979–80: Spain Valencia1980s 1980–81: Soviet Union Dinamo Tbilisi1981–82: Spain Barcelona1982–83: Scotland Aberdeen1983–84: Italy Juventus1984–85: England Everton1985–86: Soviet Union Dynamo Kyiv1986–87: Netherlands Ajax1987–88: Belgium Mechelen1988–89: Spain Barcelona1989–90: Italy Sampdoria1990s 1990–91: England Manchester United1991–92: Germany Werder Bremen1992–93: Italy Parma1993–94: England Arsenal1994–95: Spain Zaragoza1995–96: France Paris Saint-Germain1996–97: Spain Barcelona1997–98: England Chelsea1998–99: Italy LaziovteUEFA Cup and UEFA Europa League winnersUEFA Cup era, 1971–20091970s 1971–72: England Tottenham Hotspur1972–73: England Liverpool1973–74: Netherlands Feyenoord1974–75: Germany Borussia Mönchengladbach1975–76: England Liverpool1976–77: Italy Juventus1977–78: Netherlands PSV Eindhoven1978–79: Germany Borussia Mönchengladbach1979–80: Germany Eintracht Frankfurt1980s 1980–81: England Ipswich Town1981–82: Sweden IFK Göteborg1982–83: Belgium Anderlecht1983–84: England Tottenham Hotspur1984–85: Spain Real Madrid1985–86: Spain Real Madrid1986–87: Sweden IFK Göteborg1987–88: Germany Bayer Leverkusen1988–89: Italy Napoli1989–90: Italy Juventus1990s 1990–91: Italy Internazionale1991–92: Netherlands Ajax1992–93: Italy Juventus1993–94: Italy Internazionale1994–95: Italy Parma1995–96: Germany Bayern Munich1996–97: Germany Schalke 041997–98: Italy Internazionale1998–99: Italy Parma1999–2000: Turkey Galatasaray2000s 2000–01: England Liverpool2001–02: Netherlands Feyenoord2002–03: Portugal Porto2003–04: Spain Valencia2004–05: Russia CSKA Moscow2005–06: Spain Sevilla2006–07: Spain Sevilla2007–08: Russia Zenit Saint Petersburg2008–09: Ukraine Shakhtar DonetskUEFA Europa League era, 2009–present2000s 2009–10: Spain Atlético Madrid2010s 2010–11: Portugal Porto2011–12: Spain Atlético Madrid2012–13: England Chelsea2013–14: Spain Sevilla2014–15: Spain Sevilla2015–16: Spain Sevilla2016–17: England Manchester United2017–18: Spain Atlético Madrid2018–19: England Chelsea2019–20: Spain Sevilla2020s 2020–21: Spain Villarreal2021–22: Germany Eintracht Frankfurt2022–23: Spain Sevilla2023–24: Italy AtalantaFinalsWinning managersvteUEFA Super Cup winnersUCL vs. CWC 1973: Netherlands Ajax1975: Soviet Union Dynamo Kyiv1976: Belgium Anderlecht1977: England Liverpool1978: Belgium Anderlecht1979: England Nottingham Forest1980: Spain Valencia1982: England Aston Villa1983: Scotland Aberdeen1984: Italy Juventus1986: Romania Steaua București1987: Portugal Porto1988: Belgium Mechelen1989: Italy Milan1990: Italy Milan1991: England Manchester United1992: Spain Barcelona1993: Italy Parma1994: Italy Milan1995: Netherlands Ajax1996: Italy Juventus1997: Spain Barcelona1998: England Chelsea1999: Italy LazioUCL vs. UEL 2000: Turkey Galatasaray2001: England Liverpool2002: Spain Real Madrid2003: Italy Milan2004: Spain Valencia2005: England Liverpool2006: Spain Sevilla2007: Italy Milan2008: Russia Zenit St. Petersburg2009: Spain Barcelona2010: Spain Atlético Madrid2011: Spain Barcelona2012: Spain Atlético Madrid2013: Germany Bayern Munich2014: Spain Real Madrid2015: Spain Barcelona2016: Spain Real Madrid2017: Spain Real Madrid2018: Spain Atlético Madrid2019: England Liverpool2020: Germany Bayern Munich2021: England Chelsea2022: Spain Real Madrid2023: England Manchester CityWinning managersvteIntercontinental Cup winners1960s 1960: Spain Real Madrid1961: Uruguay Peñarol1962: Brazil Santos1963: Brazil Santos1964: Italy Inter Milan1965: Italy Inter Milan1966: Uruguay Peñarol1967: Argentina Racing1968: Argentina Estudiantes de La Plata1969: Italy AC Milan1970s 1970: Netherlands Feyenoord1971: Uruguay Nacional1972: Netherlands Ajax1973: Argentina Independiente1974: Spain Atlético Madrid1976: West Germany Bayern Munich1977: Argentina Boca Juniors1979: Paraguay Olimpia1980s 1980: Uruguay Nacional1981: Brazil Flamengo1982: Uruguay Peñarol1983: Brazil Grêmio1984: Argentina Independiente1985: Italy Juventus1986: Argentina River Plate1987: Portugal Porto1988: Uruguay Nacional1989: Italy AC Milan1990s 1990: Italy AC Milan1991: Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia Red Star Belgrade1992: Brazil São Paulo1993: Brazil São Paulo1994: Argentina Vélez Sársfield1995: Netherlands Ajax1996: Italy Juventus1997: Germany Borussia Dortmund1998: Spain Real Madrid1999: England Manchester United2000s 2000: Argentina Boca Juniors2001: Germany Bayern Munich2002: Spain Real Madrid2003: Argentina Boca Juniors2004: Portugal PortovteUEFA Intertoto Cup winners1995–2005 1995: France BordeauxFrance Strasbourg1996: Germany KarlsruheDenmark SilkeborgFrance Guingamp1997: France AuxerreFrance BastiaFrance Lyon1998: Italy BolognaSpain ValenciaGermany Werder1999: Italy JuventusEngland West Ham UnitedFrance Montpellier2000: Spain CeltaGermany StuttgartItaly Udinese2001: France Paris Saint-GermainFrance TroyesEngland Aston Villa2002: Spain MálagaGermany StuttgartEngland Fulham2003: Spain VillarrealItaly PerugiaGermany Schalke 042004: Spain VillarrealFrance LilleGermany Schalke 042005: Germany HamburgFrance MarseilleFrance Lens2006–2008 2006: England Newcastle United2007: Germany Hamburg2008: Portugal BragaWinning managersvteItalian Football Championship and Serie A winnersFederal Championship Genoa (1898; 1899; 1900)Milan (1901)Genoa (1902; 1903; 1904)Juventus (1905)Milan (1906; 1907)Pro Vercelli (1908; 1909)Internazionale (1909–10)Pro Vercelli (1910–11; 1911–12; 1912–13)Casale (1913–14)Genoa (1914–15)Internazionale (1919–20)Pro Vercelli (1920–21; 1921–22 (CCI))Novese (1921–22 (FIGC))Genoa (1922–23; 1923–24)Bologna (1924–25)Juventus (1925–26)no winner (1926–27); Torino (1927–28)Bologna (1928–29)Serie A Ambrosiana (1929–30)Juventus (1930–31; 1931–32; 1932–33; 1933–34; 1934–35)Bologna (1935–36; 1936–37)Ambrosiana-Inter (1937–38)Bologna (1938–39)Ambrosiana-Inter (1939–40)Bologna (1940–41)Roma 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VeronaInter MilanJuventusLazioLecceAC clubs PatriaPro Lega Serie ADefunct: Lega CalcioLega Alta ItaliaDirettorio SuperioreLega NordCompetition Teams winnersPlayers foreignManagersStadiaStatistics and awards RecordsSerie A AwardsCoach of the MonthPlayer of the MonthGoal of the MonthTeam of the YearFootballer of the YearCoach of the YearGoalkeeper of the YearReferee of the YearFootball Club of the YearItalian Footballer of the YearForeign Footballer of the YearYoung Footballer of the YearDefender of the YearTop scorersPlayers with 100+ goalsHat-tricksFinances Richest clubs: Deloitte listForbes listHistory Prima DivisioneDivisione NazionaleAssociated competitions Coppa ItaliaSupercoppa ItalianaSerie BSerie CSerie DEuropean UEFA Champions LeagueUEFA Europa LeagueUEFA Europa Conference LeaguevteSerie B2024–25 clubs clubs AcirealeAlba TrastevereAlbinoLeffeAlessandriaAlzano VirescitAnconaArezzoArsenale di PolaGrossetoGubbioHellas GoriziaPro PatriaPro SestoPro EntellaVirtus LancianoVita NovaVoghereseOrganisations Lega BDefunct: Lega CalcioLega Alta ItaliaDirettorio SuperioreLega NordChampions and promotionsForeign players BrazilvteItaly Football in ItalyItalian Football FederationNational teams SeniorB teamC teamOlympic teamUnder-23Under-21Under-21 seniorLeagues Lega Serie ALega Serie BLega ProLega Nazionale DilettantiLega Calcio defunctLega Alta Italia defunctDirettorio Divisioni Superiori defunctDirettorio Divisioni Inferiori Nord defunctLega Nord defunctLeague competitions(Categoria Leagues) Serie A Prima Divisione defunctDivisione Nazionale defunctSerie B Seconda Divisione defunctSerie C Serie C1 defunctSerie C2 defunctSerie DEccellenzaPromozionePrima CategoriaSeconda CategoriaTerza CategoriaCup competitions Coppa ItaliaSupercoppa ItalianaCoppa Italia Serie CSupercoppa di Serie C Supercoppa di Lega di Serie C2 defunctCoppa Italia Serie DCoppa Italia DilettantiYouth competitions Leagues Campionato Primavera 1Campionato Primavera 2Campionato Primavera 3Campionato Juniores NazionaliCoppa Italia PrimaveraSupercoppa PrimaveraTorneo di ViareggioWomen\'s competitions Serie ASerie BSerie CCoppa ItaliaSupercoppa ItalianaAwards Gran Galà del Calcio AICSerie A AwardsItalian Football Hall of FameLists List of clubsList of clubs by honours wonClubs in international competitionsMiscellaneous Totonero 1980Totonero 1986Italian Law 91/1981, Article 18Bfinancial doping scandalsAnglo-Italian CupCaso GenoaCalciopoli2011–12 Italian football match-fixing scandal2015 Italian football match-fixing scandalArticle 52 of N.O.I.F.ScudettoCapocannoniereItalian Football ConfederationScudetto of the and awardsRivalriesvteOriginal Serie A clubs, PatriaPro VercelliRomaTorinoTriestinavteFounding members of the European Club Association Ajax Anderlecht Barcelona Bayern Munich Birkirkara Chelsea Copenhagen Dinamo Zagreb Juventus Lyon Manchester United AC Milan Olympiacos Porto Rangers Real MadridvteFormer members of the G-14 (2000–2008)2000–2008 Ajax Barcelona Bayern Munich Borussia Dortmund Inter Milan Juventus Liverpool Manchester United Marseille AC Milan Paris Saint-Germain Porto PSV Eindhoven Real Madrid2002–2008 Arsenal Bayer Leverkusen Lyon ValenciavteExor N.V.Investments Financial service Banca Leonardo S.p.A.Oil and gas WelltecTourism, entertainmentand media Economist GroupGEDI Gruppo EditorialeAutomotive andcommercial vehicles FerrariIvecoStellantisAgricultural andconstruction CNH IndustrialSport Juventus F.C.Mobility service Via TransportationFashion Christian LouboutinHealthtechnology PhilipsAuthority control databases Edit this at WikidataInternational ISNIVIAFNational GermanyIsraelUnited StatesCzech RepublicCategories: Juventus FC1897 establishments in ItalyAssociation football clubs established in 1897Coppa Italia winning clubsFootball clubs in ItalyFootball clubs in TurinG-14 clubsItalian football First Division clubsPublicly traded sports companiesSerie A winning clubsSerie A clubsSerie B clubsUEFA Champions League winning clubsUEFA Cup Winners\' Cup winning clubsUEFA Europa League winning clubsUEFA Super Cup winning clubsUEFA Intertoto Cup winning clubsIntercontinental Cup winning clubsFamily-owned companies of Italy1897ArticleTalkReadEditView historyToolsAppearance (beta)AutomaticLightDarkReport an issue with dark modeFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopediaMillennium: 2nd millenniumCenturies: 18th century19th century 20th centuryDecades: 1870s1880s1890s 1900s1910sYears: 1894189518961897 1898189919001897 by PoetryMusicBy AfricaSpainSwedenUnited KingdomUnited StatesVenezuelaOther topicsRail transportScienceSportsLists of leadersSovereign statesSovereign state leadersTerritorial governorsReligious leadersLawBirth and death categoriesBirthsDeathsEstablishments and disestablishments categoryWorksvte1897 in various calendarsGregorian calendar 1897MDCCCXCVIIAb urbe condita 2650Armenian calendar 1346ԹՎ ՌՅԽԶAssyrian calendar 6647Baháʼí calendar 53–54Balinese saka calendar 1818–1819Bengali calendar 1304Berber calendar 2847British Regnal year 60 Vict. 1 – 61 Vict. 1Buddhist calendar 2441Burmese calendar 1259Byzantine calendar 7405–7406Chinese calendar 丙申年 (Fire Monkey)4594 or 4387 — to —丁酉年 (Fire Rooster)4595 or 4388Coptic calendar 1613–1614Discordian calendar 3063Ethiopian calendar 1889–1890Hebrew calendar 5657–5658Hindu calendars - Vikram Samvat 1953–1954 - Shaka Samvat 1818–1819 - Kali Yuga 4997–4998Holocene calendar 11897Igbo calendar 897–898Iranian calendar 1275–1276Islamic calendar 1314–1315Japanese calendar Meiji 30(明治３０年)Javanese calendar 1826–1827Julian calendar Gregorian minus 12 daysKorean calendar 4230Minguo calendar 15 before ROC民前15年Nanakshahi calendar 429Thai solar calendar 2439–2440Tibetan calendar 阳火猴年(male Fire-Monkey)2023 or 1642 or 870 — to —阴火鸡年(female Fire-Rooster)2024 or 1643 or 871Wikimedia Commons has media related to 1897.1897 (MDCCCXCVII) was a common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar and a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar, the 1897th year of the Common Era (CE) and Anno Domini (AD) designations, the 897th year of the 2nd millennium, the 97th year of the 19th century, and the 8th year of the 1890s decade. As of the start of 1897, the Gregorian calendar was 12 days ahead of the Julian calendar, which remained in localized use until 1923.EventsJanuary–MarchMarch 4, President William McKinleyJanuary 2 – The International Alpha Omicron Pi sorority is founded, in New York City.January 4 – A British force is ambushed by Chief Ologbosere, son-in-law of the ruler. This leads to a punitive expedition against Benin.January 7 – A cyclone destroys Darwin, Australia.January 8 – Lady Flora Shaw, future wife of Governor General Lord Lugard, officially proposes the name \"Nigeria\" in a newspaper contest, to be given to the British Niger Coast Protectorate.January 22 – In this date\'s issue of the journal Engineering, the word computer is first used to refer to a mechanical calculation device.[1]January 31 – The Czechoslovak Trade Union Association is founded in Prague.February 10 – Freedom of religion is proclaimed in Madagascar.February 16 – The French conquer the island of Raiatea and capture the rebel chief Teraupo\'o, ending the Leeward Islands War and bringing all of the Society Islands under their control.February 18 – Benin is put to the torch by the British Army\'s Benin Expedition. Ovonramwen, Oba of Benin, is exiled from his kingdom and the Benin Bronzes are carried off to London.February 26 – The Sigma Pi fraternity is founded in Vincennes, Indiana.February 27 – The French military governor of Madagascar, Joseph Gallieni, exiles Queen Ranavalona III to Réunion, abolishing the monarchy the next day.March 4 – William McKinley is sworn in as the 25th president of the United States.March 13 – San Diego State University is founded.March 22 – Emilio Aguinaldo unseats Andrés Bonifacio at the Tejeros Convention, becoming the new head of the Filipino revolutionary group Katipunan.April–JuneApril 15Drillers near Bartlesville, Oklahoma strike oil for the first time, in the designated \"Indian Territory\", on land leased from the Osage Indians. The gusher, at the Nellie Johnstone Number One well, leads to rapid population growth.[2]Yamaichi Securities founded in Japan; it will cease trading a hundred years later.[3]April 19 – The first Boston Marathon is held in the United States, with fifteen men competing, and won by John McDermott.[4]April 23 – Representatives of the Chickasaw Nation, Choctaw Nation and U.S. Dawes Commission sign the Atoka Agreement, which becomes an important precursor for creating the State of Oklahoma.April 27–6 May – Greco-Turkish War of 1897: Battle of Velestino.[5]April 30 – J. J. Thomson of the Cavendish Laboratory announces his discovery of the electron as a subatomic particle, over 1,800 times smaller than a proton (in the atomic nucleus), at a lecture at the Royal Institution in London.[6]May 6 – John Jacob Abel announces the successful isolation of epinephrine (adrenaline), in a paper read before the Association of American Physicians.[7]May 10 – 19 zinc miners die of carbon monoxide poisoning at Snaefell Mine on the Isle of Man.May 11 – A patent is awarded for the invention of the first automotive muffler, with the granting by the U.S. Patent Office of application number 582,485 to Milton Reeves and his brother Marshall T. Reeves, of the Reeves Pulley Company of Columbus, Indiana.[8]May 14The Stars and Stripes Forever, an American patriotic march by John Philip Sousa, is performed for the first time.[9](or May 15) – The Scientific-Humanitarian Committee (Wissenschaftlich-humanitäres Komitee, WhK) is founded in Berlin as an LGBT campaigning organization, the first such in history.[10]May 19 – Oscar Wilde is released from prison in England, and goes into voluntary exile on the continent. [11]May 22 – The Blackwall Tunnel, at this time the longest underwater road tunnel in the world, is opened for traffic beneath the River Thames in the East End of London by the Prince of Wales.[12]May 26 – Irish-born theatrical manager Bram Stoker\'s contemporary Gothic horror novel Dracula is first published (in London); it will influence the direction of vampire literature for the following century.[13]May 31 – On Decoration Day (later Memorial Day) the Robert Gould Shaw Memorial is dedicated in Boston. The bronze bas relief by Augustus St. Gaudens depicts the 54th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment of black Civil War soldiers.June 12 – 1897 Assam earthquake: An earthquake of magnitude of 8.0 rocks Assam, India, killing over 1,500 people.June 18 – Kyoto University is officially established in Japan.[14]June 22 – The Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria is celebrated in the United Kingdom.[15] No other British monarch will celebrate such a jubilee until Elizabeth II in 2012.Display in celebration of Queen Victoria\'s Diamond Jubilee on Alma Place in Coleraine, County Londonderry, UlsterJuly–SeptemberJuly 11 – S. A. Andrée\'s Arctic Balloon Expedition of 1897 begins. The ill-fated expedition to fly over the Arctic results in the death of the entire team within months.July 17 – The Klondike Gold Rush begins when the first successful prospectors arrive in SeattleJuly 25 – Writer Jack London sails to join the Klondike Gold Rush, where he will write his first successful stories.July 26–August 2 – Siege of Malakand: British troops are besieged by Pashtun tribesmen in Malakand, on the Northwest frontier of British India (modern-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan).July 31 – Mount Saint Elias, the second highest peak in the United States and Canada, is first ascended.August 10 – At the Bayer pharmaceutical company, pharmacist Felix Hoffmann successfully synthesizes acetylsalicylic acid, after isolating a compound from a plant of the Spiraea family; the company markets it under the brand name \"Aspirin\".[16]August 21 – The Olds Motor Vehicle Co. is founded in Lansing, Michigan, by Ransom E. Olds.August 29 – The First Zionist Congress convenes in Basel, Switzerland.August 31 – Thomas Edison is granted a patent for the Kinetoscope, a precursor of the movie projector.October 6, Ethiopian flag.September 1 – The Tremont Street subway is opened in Boston, Massachusetts.September 10 – Lattimer massacre: A sheriff\'s posse kills 19 unarmed immigrant miners in Pennsylvania.September 11 – After months of searching, generals of Menelik II of Ethiopia capture Gaki Sherocho, the last king of Kaffa, bringing an end to that ancient kingdom.September 12 – Battle of Saragarhi: Twenty-one Sikhs of the 36th Sikhs regiment of the British Indian Army defend an army post to the death, against 10,000 Afghan and Orakzai tribesmen, in the Tirah Campaign on the Northwest frontier of the British Raj (modern-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan).September 20 – Greece and Turkey sign a peace treaty to end the Greco-Turkish War.October: USS Baltimore in HawaiiSeptember 21 – Francis P. Church responds (anonymously) to a letter to the editor of The Sun (New York City) that is known as the famous \"Yes, Virginia, there is a Santa Claus\" letter.October–DecemberOctober 5 – After a long siege, Brazilian government troops take Canudos in north Brazil, crushing Antônio Conselheiro and his followers.October 6 – Ethiopia adopts the tricolor flag: green is for the land, yellow for gold, and red is symbolic of strength and the blood shed.October 12The Korean Empire is proclaimed, marking the end of the Joseon dynasty after just over 500 years.The city of Belo Horizonte, Brazil is created. The construction of the second Brazilian planned city is completed successfully; an immigration of 1,000,000 people is estimated.USS Baltimore (Cruiser # 3, later CM-1) is recommissioned, since 1890, for several months of duty in the Hawaiian Islands.October 13 – HMS Canopus, a pre-dreadnought battleship of the Royal Navy, is launched at Portsmouth, England; she will be deployed widely in World War I.October 23 – The Kappa Delta sorority is founded in Farmville, Virginia.November 1 – Juventus FC is founded as an association football club in Turin.November 25 – Spain grants Puerto Rico autonomy.December 9 – The first issue of the feminist newspaper La Fronde is published by Marguerite Durand in Paris.December 12The comic strip The Katzenjammer Kids debuts in the New York Journal.Belo Horizonte, the first planned city in Brazil, is incorporated.December 14 – Pact of Biak-na-Bato: The Philippine Revolution is settled, with Spanish promises to reform.December 28 – The play Cyrano de Bergerac, by Edmond Rostand, premieres in Paris.December 30 – Natal annexes Zululand.Date unknownThe first electric bicycle is invented.Karl Lueger becomes mayor of Vienna.Zhejiang University is founded in China.Émile Durkheim publishes his classic study Suicide.The pan-African anthem \"Nkosi Sikelel\' iAfrika\" (\"God Bless Africa\") is composed as a Xhosa hymn by South African teacher Enoch Sontonga.Dos Equis beer is first brewed in Mexico, in anticipation of the new century. \"Dos equis\" is Spanish for \"two x\", a reference to the 20th Century (XX in Roman numerals)Alexander Scriabin publishes his Piano Sonata no. 2 \"Sonata-Fantasia\" in G sharp minorBirthsJanuary–FebruaryMarion DaviesLudwig ErhardJudith AndersonMarian AndersonJanuary 3Marion Davies, American actress (d. 1961)Pola Negri, Polish-born American actress (d. 1987)January 6 – Ferenc Szálasi, 37th prime minister of Hungary (d. 1946)January 8 – Dennis Wheatley, English writer (d. 1977)[17]January 14 – Hasso von Manteuffel, German general, politician (d. 1978)January 23Subhas Chandra Bose, Indian political leader, led the Indian National Army (d. 1945?)Margarete Schütte-Lihotzky, Austrian architect, anti-Nazi activist (d. 2000)January 26 – Yakov Alksnis, Soviet aviator, commander of the Red Army Air Forces (d. 1938)January 28 – Ivan Stedeford, British industrialist (d. 1975)February 1 – Denise Robins, British romance novelist (d. 1985)February 4 – Ludwig Erhard, Chancellor of Germany (d. 1977)February 8 – Zakir Husain, Indian politician, 3rd President of India (d. 1969)February 9 – Charles Kingsford Smith, Australian aviator famous for his trans-Pacific flight (d. 1935)February 10Judith Anderson, Australian-born British actress (d. 1992)John Franklin Enders, American scientist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1985)February 19 – Elizabeth Rummel, German-Canadian mountaineer and environmental activist (d. 1980)February 21 – Celia Lovsky, Austrian-born American actress (d. 1979)February 25 – Peter Llewelyn Davies, British publisher, inspiration for Peter Pan (d. 1960)February 27Marian Anderson, African-American contralto (d. 1993)Ferdinand Heim, World War II German general (Scapegoat of Stalingrad) d. 1977)March–AprilLefty O\'DoulPrincess MaryMarch 1 – Shoghi Effendi, Ottoman Guardian of the Bahá\'í Faith (d. 1957)March 4 – Lefty O\'Doul, American baseball player, restaurateur (d. 1969)March 5 – Set Persson, Swedish communist politician (d. 1960)March 11 – Henry Cowell, American avant-garde composer (d. 1965)March 16 – Flora Eldershaw, Australian novelist, critic, and historian (d. 1956)March 18 – John Langdon-Davies, British writer (d. 1971)March 19 – Betty Compson, American actress (d. 1974)March 24 – Wilhelm Reich, Austrian psychotherapist (d. 1957)March 28Frank Hawks, American aviator (d. 1938)Sepp Herberger, German football coach (d. 1977)March 31 – Oto Iskandar di Nata, Indonesian politician (d. 1945)April 7Erich Löwenhardt, German World War I fighter ace (d. 1918)Walter Winchell, American broadcast journalist (d. 1972)April 8 – Herbert Lumsden, British general (d. 1945)April 10 – Prafulla Chandra Sen, Indian politician and Chief Minister of West Bengal (d. 1990)April 13 – Werner Voss, German World War I fighter ace (d. 1917)April 17 – Thornton Wilder, American dramatist (d. 1975)April 19Jiroemon Kimura, Japanese supercentenarian, world\'s longest lived man, last surviving man born in the 19th century and last surviving person born in 1897 (d. 2013)Vivienne Segal, American actress (d. 1992)April 20 – Sudhakar Chaturvedi, Indian Vedic scholar and longevity claimant (d. 2020)April 21 – A. W. Tozer, American Protestant pastor (d. 1963)April 23 – Lester B. Pearson, 14th Prime Minister of Canada, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1972)April 24 – Manuel Ávila Camacho, Mexican general, politician, and 45th President of Mexico, 1940-1946 (d. 1955)[18]April 25 – Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of Harewood, British princess (d. 1965)April 26Eddie Eagan, American boxer, bobsledder (d. 1967)Douglas Sirk, German film director (d. 1987)May–JuneEinar GerhardsenOdd HasselAnthony EdenPaavo NurmiMay 2 – John Frederick Coots, American songwriter (d. 1985)May 4 – Phelps Phelps, 38th Governor of American Samoa, United States Ambassador to the Dominican Republic (d. 1981)May 10 – Einar Gerhardsen, 15th prime minister of Norway (d. 1987)May 12 – Earle Nelson, American serial killer and rapist (d. 1928)May 14 – Sidney Bechet, American-born jazz saxophonist (d. 1959)May 17 – Odd Hassel, Norwegian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1981)May 18 – Frank Capra, American film producer, director and writer (d. 1991)May 19 – Frank Luke, American World War I pilot (d. 1918)May 27 – John Cockcroft, English physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1967)May 29 – Erich Wolfgang Korngold, Austrian composer (d. 1957)June 2 – Tan Malaka, Indonesian teacher, philosopher, founder of Struggle Union and Murba Party, guerilla and fighter (d. 1949)June 5 – Charles Hartshorne, American philosopher, theologian and ornithologist (d. 2000)[19]June 7Kirill Meretskov, Soviet military officer, Marshal of the Soviet Union (d. 1968)George Szell, Hungarian conductor (d. 1970)June 8John G. Bennett, British mathematician (d. 1974)Mariano Suárez, 27th president of Ecuador (d. 1980)June 10 – Grand Duchess Tatiana Nikolaevna of Russia (d. 1918)[20]June 11 – Ram Prasad Bismil, Indian revolutionary (H.R.A. founder) (d. 1927)June 12 – Anthony Eden, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1977)June 13 – Paavo Nurmi, Finnish runner (d. 1973)June 16 – Georg Wittig, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1987)June 19Cyril N. Hinshelwood, English chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1967)Moe Howard, American comedian, actor (The Three Stooges) (d. 1975)June 22Norbert Elias, German sociologist (d. 1990)Edmund A. Chester, American broadcaster, journalist (d. 1973)June 24 – Daniel K. Ludwig, American businessman; billionaire philanthropist (d. 1992)June 26 – Viola Dana, American actress (d. 1987)July–AugustPlaek PhibunsongkhramTadeusz ReichsteinJuly 1 – Bert Schneider, Canadian boxer (d. 1986)July 9 – Albert Coady Wedemeyer, American general (d. 1989)July 11 – Bull Connor, American civil rights opponent (d. 1973)July 14 – Plaek Phibunsongkhram, Thai field marshal, prime minister, and dictator (d. 1964)July 20 – Tadeusz Reichstein, Polish-born chemist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1996)July 24 – Amelia Earhart, American aviator (d. 1937)[21]July 28 – James Fairbairn, Australian pastoralist, aviator, and politician (d. 1940)July 29 – Sir Neil Ritchie, British WWII general (d. 1983)August 4 – José Nucete Sardi, Venezuelan historian and diplomat (d. 1972)[22]August 5 – Aksel Larsen, Danish politician (d. 1972)August 10 – Jack Haley, American actor (d. 1979)August 11 – Enid Blyton, British children\'s writer (d. 1968)August 15 – Jane Ingham, English botanist and scientific translator (d. 1982)August 16Carlo Del Prete, Italian aviator (d. 1928)Hersch Lauterpacht, Ukrainian-born international lawyer (d. 1960)August 22 – Elisabeth Bergner, Austrian actress (d. 1986)August 26 – Yun Posun, 2nd president of South Korea (d. 1990)August 31 – Fredric March, American actor (d. 1975)September–OctoberHumberto de Alencar Castelo BrancoWalter PidgeonWilliam FaulknerSeptember 7 – Al Sherman, Russian-born American Tin Pan Alley songwriter (d. 1973)September 8 – Jimmie Rodgers, American singer (d. 1933)September 10 – Otto Strasser, German Nazi politician (d. 1974)September 12 – Irène Joliot-Curie, French physicist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (d. 1956)September 13 – Michel Saint-Denis, French-born actor, theatre director, drama theorist and radio broadcaster (d. 1971)September 15 – Kurt Daluege, German Nazi officer, war criminal (d. 1946)September 20 – Humberto de Alencar Castelo Branco, 26th President of Brazil (d. 1967)September 23 – Walter Pidgeon, Canadian actor (d. 1984)September 25 – William Faulkner, American writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1962)September 26Pope Paul VI (d. 1978)Arthur Rhys-Davids, British World War I fighter ace (d. 1917)September 30 – Alfred Wintle, British army officer, eccentric (d. 1966)October 3 – Louis Aragon, French author (d. 1982)October 7 – Elijah Muhammad, African-American co-founder of the Nation of Islam (d. 1975)October 8 – Rouben Mamoulian, Armenian-American film, theatre director (d. 1987)October 15 – Johannes Sikkar, Estonian statesman (d. 1960)October 20 – Yi Un, Korean Crown Prince (d. 1970)October 28 – Edith Head, American costume designer (d. 1981)October 29 – Joseph Goebbels, German Nazi propagandist (d. 1945)November–DecemberQuentin RooseveltHermione GingoldNovember 4 – Dmitry Pavlov, Soviet general (d. 1941)November 9 – Ronald George Wreyford Norrish, British chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1978)November 15Sir Sacheverell Sitwell, Bt, English author (d. 1988)Aneurin Bevan, Welsh politician (d. 1960)November 18 – Patrick Blackett, Baron Blackett, English physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1974)November 19 – Quentin Roosevelt, youngest son of American President Theodore Roosevelt, killed in action as fighter pilot (d. 1918)November 23 – Nirad C. Chaudhuri, Bengali author (d. 1999)November 24 – Lucky Luciano, Sicilian-American Mafia boss Salvatore Lucania (d. 1962)November 30 – Virginia Henderson, American nurse theorist (d. 1996)December 2 – Dean Alfange, American politician (d. 1989)December 5 – Gershom Scholem, German-born Israeli Jewish philosopher, historian (d. 1982)December 9 – Hermione Gingold, English actress (d. 1987)December 14 – Kurt Schuschnigg, 11th Chancellor of Austria (d. 1977)December 18 – Fletcher Henderson, American musician (d. 1952)December 24 – Lazare Ponticelli, Italian-French supercentenarian; last surviving officially recognized French veteran of the First World War (d. 2008)December 31 – Rhys Williams, Welsh actor (d. 1969)Date unknownAbd-al Karim, Afghan emir (d. 1927)Nisar Muhammad Yousafzai, Afghan revolutionary and decorated War Hero of the Afghan War of Independence (d. 1937)DeathsJanuary–JuneJohannes BrahmsAndrés BonifacioMinna CanthLouis Brière de l\'IsleJanuary 1 – Joseph S. Skerrett, American admiral (b. 1833)January 9 – Thomas Gwyn Elger, English astronomer (b. 1836)January 25 – Albion P. Howe, Union Army general (b. 1818)January 30 – Robert Themptander, 4th prime minister of Sweden (b. 1844)February 1 – Jeanne Merkus, Dutch deaconess, guerilla soldier and political activist (b. 1839)February 4 – Charles Bendire, U.S. Army captain, ornithologist (b. 1836)February 15 – Dimitrie Ghica, 10th prime minister of Romania (b. 1816)February 17 – Edmund Colhoun, American admiral (b. 1821)February 19 – Karl Weierstrass, German mathematician (b. 1815)March 6 – Sir Thomas Elder, Australian businessman and philanthropist (b. 1818)March 9 – Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani, Iranian teacher, writer (b. 1838)March 10 – Savitribai Phule, Indian social reformer and poet (b. 1831)March 11 – Henry Drummond, Scottish evangelical writer, lecturer (b. 1851)March 19 – Antoine Thomson d\'Abbadie, Irish-born traveler (b. 1810)April 1 – Jandamarra, Australian Aboriginal insurrectionist (b. c. 1873)April 3 – Johannes Brahms, German composer (b. 1833)[23]April 8 – Heinrich von Stephan, German postal director (b. 1831)April 10 – Friedrich Franz III, Grand Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin (b. 1851)April 30 – A. Viola Neblett, American activist, suffragist, women\'s rights pioneer (b. 1842)May 3 – Sir Frederick Knight, British politician (b. 1812)May 4 – Duchess Sophie Charlotte in Bavaria (b. 1847)May 7Ion Ghica, 3-time prime minister of Romania (b. 1816)Henri d\'Orléans, Duke of Aumale (b. 1822)[24]May 10 – Andrés Bonifacio, Filipino revolutionary (b. 1863)May 12 – Minna Canth, Finnish writer and social activist (b. 1844)[25]May 23 – Pusapati Ananda Gajapati Raju, Indian rajah (b. 1850)June 17 – Sebastian Kneipp, German priest and naturopath (b. 1821)June 19 – Louis Brière de l\'Isle, French general (b. 1827)July–DecemberAntonio Cánovas del CastilloSaint Thérèse of LisieuxJan HeemskerkJuly 1 – Ropata Wahawaha, New Zealand Māori military leader (b. c.1820)July 6Tommy Burns, English diver (b. 1867 or 1868)Celia Barrios de Reyna, First Mother of the Nation of Guatemala (b. 1834)August 8Antonio Cánovas del Castillo, incumbent Prime Minister of Spain and historian (assassinated) (b. 1828)Viktor Meyer, German chemist (b. 1848)August 17 – Sir William Jervois, British military engineer and diplomat (b. 1821)August 24Sébastien Lespès, French admiral (b. 1828)Mutsu Munemitsu, Japanese statesman, diplomat (b. 1844)August 31 – Louisa Lane Drew, English-born American actress, theater manager (b. 1820)September 9Richard Holt Hutton, English writer, theologian (b. 1826)Ferenc Pulszky, Hungarian politician (b. 1814)September 20 – Louis Pierre Mouillard, French artist and aviation pioneer (b. 1834)[26]September 21 – Wilhelm Wattenbach, German historian (b. 1819)September 27Charles-Denis Bourbaki, French military leader (b. 1816)George M. Robeson, American politician (b. 1829)September 30 – Saint Thérèse of Lisieux, French Roman Catholic and Discalced Carmelite nun, saint (b. 1873)October 2 – Edward Maitland, British writer (b. 1824)October 3 – Yamaji Motoharu, Japanese general (b. 1841)October 9John M. B. Clitz, American admiral (b. 1821)Jan Heemskerk, Dutch politician, 16th Prime Minister of the Netherlands (b. 1818)October 13 – William Daniel, American temperance movement leader (b. 1826)October 19 – George Pullman, American inventor and industrialist (b. 1831)October 26 – John J. Robison, American politician in Michigan (b. 1824)[27]October 27Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge (b. 1833)Carlos Antúnez González [es], Chilean politician (b. 1847)Alexander Milton Ross, Canadian abolitionist, naturalist (b. 1832)October 28 – Hercules Robinson, 1st Baron Rosmead, British colonial governor (b. 1824)October 29 – Henry George, American economist (b. 1839)November – Francisco Gonzalo Marín, Cuban poet, freedom fighter (b. 1863)November 3 – Thomas Lanier Clingman, American \"Prince of Politicians\" (b. 1812)November 13 – Ernest Giles, Australian explorer (b. 1835)November 15 – Lucinda Barbour Helm, American women\'s religious activist (b. 1839)November 17 – George Hendric Houghton, American Protestant Episcopal clergyman (b. 1820)[28]November 18 – Sir Henry Doulton, English pottery manufacturer (b. 1820)November 19 – William Seymour Tyler, American educator, historian (b. 1810)November 23 – Étienne Stéphane Tarnier, French obstetrician (b. 1828)December 14 – Robert Simpson, Scottish-Canadian businessman (b. 1834)December 16 – Alphonse Daudet, French writer (b. 1840)December 19 – Stanislas de Guaita, French poet (b. 1861)December 28 – William Corby, American Catholic priest (b. 1833)Date unknownIsidora GoyenecheaIsidora Goyenechea, Chilean industrialist, mine owner (b. 1836)References Oxford English Dictionary. McCoy, Lisa (2010). Computers and Programming. Infobase Publishing. p. 1. Baird, W. David; Goble, Danney (1994). The Story of Oklahoma. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 8. \"Yamaichi chief gives Diet testimony on \'tobashi\' trades\". The Japan Times. December 9, 1997. Archived from the original on November 19, 2015. Retrieved November 8, 2011. Matthews, Peter (2012). \"Boston Marathon\". Historical Dictionary of Track and Field. Scarecrow Press. p. 40. Spyropoulos, N. (1928). \"Βελεστῖνον\". Μεγάλη Στρατιωτικὴ καὶ Ναυτικὴ Ἐγκυκλοπαιδεία. Tόμος Δεύτερος: [Great Military and Naval Encyclopaedia. Volume II: Alarcon–Goniometer] (in Greek). Athens: Ἔκδοσις Μεγάλης Στρατιωτικῆς καὶ Ναυτικῆς Ἐγκυκλοπαιδείας. pp. 335–337. OCLC 31255024. Sutton, Christine (January 8, 1997). \"Ninety years around the atom\". New Scientist: 49. \"On the Blood-Pressure-Raising Constituent of the Suprarenal Capsule\", by John J. Abel, M.D., and Albert C. Crawford, M.D., in Bulletin of the Johns Hopkins Hospital (July, 1897) p151 \"Exhaust Muffler for Engines\"; QRZ News, September 2014 Archived July 17, 2015, at the Wayback Machine Woodstra, Chris; et al. (2005). \"John Philip Sousa\". All Music Guide to Classical Music. Hal Leonard Corporation. p. 1296. Lauritsen, John; Thorstad, David (1995). The Early Homosexual Rights Movement (1864–1935) (Revised ed.). New York: Times Change Press. ISBN 0-87810-041-5. Page, Norman (1991). An Oscar Wilde Chronology. Macmillan. pp. 74–75. Penguin Pocket On This Day. Penguin Reference Library. 2006. ISBN 978-0-14-102715-9. Joshi, S. T., ed. (2010). \"Dracula (Stoker)\". Encyclopedia of the Vampire: The Living Dead in Myth, Legend, and Popular Culture. ABC-Clio. p. 82. ja:京都大学#年表#明治 (Japanese language) Retrieved 2017-05-17. Keeling, Anne E. (2008). Great Britain and Her Queen. Echo Library. p. 77. Diarmuid Jeffreys, Aspirin: The Remarkable Story of a Wonder Drug (Bloomsbury, 2005) p70 NA, NA (December 25, 2015). Twentieth Century Crime & Mystery Writers. Springer. p. 1468. ISBN 978-1-349-81366-7. \"Manuel Avila Camacho\" (in Spanish). economia.com.mx. Retrieved May 31, 2019. Skutch, Alexander F. (2001). \"In Memoriam: Charles Hartshorne, 1897–2000\". The Auk. 118 (4): 1034. ISSN 0004-8038. S2CID 85591093. \"BBC Two - Russia\'s Lost Princesses - Beyond the portraits\". BBC. Retrieved January 14, 2022. \"Amelia Earhart | Biography, Disappearance, & Facts\". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved December 12, 2020. Mireya SOSA DE LEÓN: «Nucete Sardi, José». En: Diccionario de Historia de Venezuela. Venezuela: Fundación Empresas Polar, 1997. 980-6397-37-I. Alfred Louis Bacharach (1972). Lives of Great Composers. Books for Libraries Press. p. 105. ISBN 978-0-8369-2783-2. Hugh Montgomery-Massingberd (1977). Burke\'s Royal Families of the World. Burke\'s Peerage. p. 528. ISBN 978-0-85011-029-6. Maijala, Minna. \"Minna Canth (1844–1897)\". Klassikkogalleria. Kristiina Institute, University of Helsinki. Retrieved December 8, 2020. Pierre Lecomte du Noüy (1967). Between Knowing and Believing. McKay. p. 173. \"John J. Robison Dead\". Ann Arbor Register. Ann Arbor District Library. October 28, 1897. Retrieved December 28, 2023. George Woolliscroft Rhead (1910). British Pottery Marks. Scott, Greenwood. p. 115.Further reading and year books1897 Annual Cyclopedia (1898) highly detailed coverage of \"Political, Military, and Ecclesiastical Affairs; Public Documents; Biography, Statistics, Commerce, Finance, Literature, Science, Agriculture, and Mechanical Industry\" for year 1897; massive compilation of facts and primary documents; worldwide coverage; 824 ppCrown (British coin)One crownGreat BritainUnited KingdomValue 5/— (25p in decimal currency)£5 (commemorative coins from 1990 and later)Diameter 38 mmEdge MilledComposition (1816–1919) 92.5% Ag(1920–1946) 50% Ag(1947–1970) CupronickelYears of minting 1707–1981ObverseObverse of the crown of 1891, Great Britain, Victoria.jpgDesign Profile of the monarch (Victoria \"jubilee head\" design shown)Designer Joseph BoehmDesign date 1887ReverseReverse crown 1891, Great Britain, Victoria.jpgDesign Various (St George design shown)Designer Benedetto PistrucciDesign date 1817The British crown was a denomination of sterling coinage worth 1/4 of one pound, or 5 shillings, or 60 (old) pence. The crown was first issued during the reign of Edward VI, as part of the coinage of the Kingdom of England.Always a heavy silver coin weighing around one ounce, during the 19th and 20th centuries the crown declined from being a real means of exchange to being a coin rarely spent, and minted for commemorative purposes only. Unlike in some territories of the British Empire (such as Jamaica), in the UK the crown was never replaced as circulating currency by a five-shilling banknote.\"Decimal\" crowns were minted a few times after decimalisation of the British currency in 1971, initially with a nominal value of 25 (new) pence. However, commemorative crowns issued since 1990 have a face value of five pounds.[1]HistoryThe coin\'s origins lie in the English silver crown, one of many silver coins that appeared in various countries from the 16th century onwards (most famously the Spanish piece of eight), all of similar size and weight (approx 38mm diameter, 25g fine silver) and thus interchangeable in international trade. The Kingdom of England also minted gold Crowns until early in the reign of Charles II.[2]The dies for all gold and silver coins of Queen Anne and King George I were engraved by John Croker, a migrant originally from Dresden in the Duchy of Saxony.[3]The British silver crown was always a large coin, and from the 19th century it did not circulate well. However, crowns were usually struck in a new monarch\'s coronation year, from George IV through Elizabeth II in 1953, with the exceptions of George V and Edward VIII.\"Gothic\" crown of Queen Victoria (1847). The coin had a mintage of just 8,000 and was produced to celebrate the Gothic revivalThe King George V \"wreath\" crowns struck from 1927 through 1936 (excluding 1935 when the more common \"rocking horse\" crown was minted to commemorate the King\'s Silver Jubilee) depict a wreath on the reverse of the coin and were struck in very low numbers. Generally struck late in the year and intended to be purchased as Christmas gifts, they were generally kept rather than circulated. The 1927 \"wreath\" crowns were struck as proofs only (15,030 minted) and the 1934 coin had a mintage of just 932.[citation needed]With their large size, many of the later coins were primarily commemoratives. The 1951 issue was for the Festival of Britain, and was only struck in proof condition. The 1953 crown was issued to celebrate the Coronation of Queen Elizabeth II, while the 1960 issue (which carried the same reverse design as the previous crown in 1953) commemorated the British Exhibition in New York. The 1965 issue carried the image of Winston Churchill on the reverse. According to the Standard Catalogue of coins, 19,640,000 of this coin were minted, although intended as collectable pieces the large mintage and lack of precious metal content means these coins are effectively worthless today.[4] Production of the Churchill crown began on 11 October 1965, and stopped in the summer of 1966.The crown coin was nicknamed the dollar, but is not to be confused with the British trade dollar that circulated in the Orient.In 2014, a new world record price was achieved for a milled silver crown. The coin was unique, issued as a pattern by engraver Thomas Simon in 1663 and nicknamed the \"Reddite Crown\". It was presented to Charles II as the new crown piece, but ultimately rejected in favour of the Roettiers Brothers\' design. saleeers Spink & Son of London sold the coin on 27 March 2014 for £396,000 including commission.[5]All pre-decimal crowns from 1818 on remain legal tender with a face value of 25p.[6]Decimal crownsMain articles: British twenty-five pence coin and Five pounds (British coin)After decimalisation on 15 February 1971, the 25-pence coin was introduced as a replacement for the crown as a commemorative coin. These were legal tender[6] and were made with large mintages.Further issues continued to be minted, initially with a value of twenty-five pence (with no face value shown). From 1990, the face value of new crown coins was raised to five pounds.[1]Preceded byEnglish crownCrown1707–1965 Succeeded byTwenty–five penceChanging valuesThe legal tender value of the crown remained as five shillings from 1544 to 1965. However, for most of this period there was no denominational designation or \"face value\" mark of value displayed on the coin. From 1927 to 1939, the word \"CROWN\" appears, and from 1951 to 1960 this was changed to \"FIVE SHILLINGS\". Coins minted since 1818 remain legal tender with a face value of 25 pence.Although all \"normal\" issues since 1951 have been composed of cupro-nickel, special proof versions have been produced for sale to collectors, and as gift items, in silver, gold, and occasionally platinum.The fact that gold £5 crowns are now produced means that there are two different strains of five pound gold coins, namely crowns and what are now termed \"quintuple sovereigns\" for want of a more concise term.[7][8]Numismatically, the term \"crown-sized\" is used generically to describe large silver or cupro-nickel coins of about 40 mm in diameter. Most Commonwealth countries still issue crown-sized coins for sale to collectors.New Zealand\'s original fifty-cent pieces, and Australia\'s previously round but now dodecagonal fifty-cent piece, although valued at five shillings in predecimal accounting, are all smaller than the standard silver crown pieces issued by those countries (and the UK). They were in fact similarly sized to the predecimal half crown (worth two shillings and sixpence).CompositionFor silver crowns, the grade of silver adhered to the long-standing standard (established in the 12th century by Henry II) – the Sterling Silver standard of 92.5% silver and 7.5% copper. This was a harder-wearing alloy, yet it was still a rather high grade of silver. It went some way towards discouraging the practice of \"clipping\", though this practice was further discouraged and largely eliminated with the introduction of the milled edge seen on coins today.In a debasement process which took effect in 1920, the silver content of all British coins was reduced from 92.5% to 50%, with a portion of the remainder consisting of manganese, which caused the coins to tarnish to a very dark colour after they had been in circulation for a significant period. Silver was eliminated altogether in 1947, with the move to a composition of cupro-nickel – except for proof issues, which returned to the pre-1920 92.5% silver composition.Since the Great Recoinage of 1816, a crown has, as a general rule, had a diameter of 38.61 millimetres (1.520 in), and weighed 28.276 grams (defined as 10⁄11 troy ounce).[9][10]Modern mintagesMonarch Year Number minted Detail Composition*Edward VII As 5/- (60d - quarter sovereign)1902 256,020 Coronation 0.925 silverGeorge V 1927 15,030 (proof only) \'Wreath\' Crown 0.500 silver1928 9,034 \'Wreath\' Crown 0.500 silver1929 4,994 \'Wreath\' Crown 0.500 silver1930 4,847 \'Wreath\' Crown 0.500 silver1931 4,056 \'Wreath\' Crown 0.500 silver1932 2,395 \'Wreath\' Crown 0.500 silver1933 7,132 \'Wreath\' Crown 0.500 silver1934 932 \'Wreath\' Crown 0.500 silver1935 714,769 George V and Queen Mary Silver Jubilee 0.500 silver1936 2,473 \'Wreath\' Crown 0.500 silverGeorge VI 1937 418,699 Coronation 0.500 silver1951 1,983,540 Festival of Britain Cu/NiElizabeth II 1953 5,962,621 Coronation Cu/Ni1960 1,024,038 British Exhibition in New York Cu/Ni1965 19,640,000 Death of Sir Winston Churchill Cu/NiAs 25p (quarter sovereign)1972 7,452,100 Queen Elizabeth II 25th Wedding Anniversary 25p Cu/Ni1977 37,061,160 Queen Elizabeth II Silver Jubilee Cu/Ni1980 9,306,000 Queen Mother 80th Birthday Cu/Ni1981 26,773,600 Charles & Diana Wedding Cu/NiFor crowns minted from 1990, which have a value of £5, see here.The specifications for composition refer to the standard circulation versions. Proof versions continue to be minted in Sterling silver.GalleryQuarter sovereignIn 1853, the Royal Mint had produced two patterns for a gold 5-shilling coin for circulation use, one denominated as five shillings and the other as a quarter sovereign, but this coin never went into production, in part due to concerns about the small size of the coin and likely wear in circulation.[11] The quarter sovereign was introduced in 2009 as a bullion coin.Referencesicon Money portal Numismatics portalflag United Kingdom portal \"The Royal Mint: Five Pound Coin Designs and Specifications\". The Royal Mint. Retrieved 10 July 2015. \"Crown\". Royal Mint Museum. Retrieved 17 July 2022. In 1551 Edward VI issued a large silver coin of the value of five shillings and as its currency value was the same as that of the gold crown it took its name from that coin. Both gold and silver crowns continued to be struck concurrently until early in the reign of Charles II, when minting of the gold crown ceased. Warwick William Wroth, \'Croker, John (1670-1741)\' in Dictionary of National Biography, 1885-1900, vol. 13 \"How Much is a 1965 Winston Churchill Coin Worth?\". churchillcentral.com. 17 April 2019. Retrieved 4 July 2022. \"Spink sets new world record for an English silver coin, 27 March 2014\". Spink saleeers. Archived from the original on 2 April 2014. Retrieved 27 March 2014. \"How can I dispose of commemorative crowns? And why do some have a higher face value than others?\". The Royal Mint Museum. Archived from the original on 13 April 2020. Retrieved 22 November 2019. \"Quintuple Sovereigns - Five Pound Gold Coins\". taxfreegold.co.uk. Retrieved 23 June 2017. \"British Gold Proof Commemorative Crowns\". taxfreegold.co.uk. Retrieved 23 June 2017. Specifications of British Pre-decimal Coins Kindleberger, Charles P. (2005). A Financial History of Western Europe. Taylor & Francis. p. 60. ISBN 9780415378673. OnlineCoinClub Quarter Sovereign pre-decimalExternal linksWikimedia Commons has media related to Crown (British coin).History of Five Shilling Coins on Coins of the UKRoyal Mint Museum\'s history of Crown CoinCrown, Coin Type from United Kingdom - Online Coin ClubvteCurrency units named crown or similarCirculating Czech korunaDanish kroneFaroese krónaIcelandic krónaNorwegian kroneSwedish kronaDefunct Austrian kroneAustrian Netherlands kronenthalerAustro-Hungarian crownBohemian and Moravian korunaCzechoslovak korunaEstonian kroonFiume kroneHungarian koronaLiechtenstein kroneSlovak korunaSlovak koruna (1939–1945)Yugoslav kroneProposed Greenlandic koruuniAs a denomination British crownEnglish crownKronenthalervteSterling coinageDecimal 1/2p1p2p5p10p20p50p£1£2Pre-decimal Quarter farthing (1/16d) (British Ceylon)Third farthing (1/12d) (Crown Colony of Malta)Half farthing (1/8d)Farthing (1/4d)Halfpenny (1/2d)Penny (1d)Three halfpence (1+1/2d) (British Ceylon & British West Indies)Twopence (2d)Threepence (3d)Fourpence (4d)Sixpence (6d)Shilling (1/–)Fifteen pence (1/3d) (Australia)Eighteen Pence(1/6d) (British Ireland)Florin (2/–)Half crown (2/6d)Thirty Pence(2/6d) (British Ireland)Double florin (4/–)Crown (5/–)Six Shillings (6/-) (British Ireland)Quarter guinea (5/3d)Third guinea (7/–)Half sovereign (10/–)Half guinea (10/6d)Sovereign (£1)Guinea (£1/1/–)Double sovereign (£2)Two guineas (£2/2/–)Five pounds (£5)Five guineas (£5/5/–)Commemorative 3p (Tristan Da Cunha)6p25p60p (Isle of Man)70p (Ascension moneyBullion BritanniaQuarter sovereignHalf sovereignSovereignDouble sovereignQuintuple sovereignLunarThe Queen\'s BeastsLandmarks of BritainSee also SterlingSterling banknotesList of British banknotes and coinsList of British currenciesJubilee coinageOld Head coinageScottish coinageCoins of IrelandList of people on coins of the United KingdomCategories: Crown (currency)Coins of Great BritainCoins of the United KingdomQuarter-base-unit coinsQueen VictoriaVictoriaPhotograph of Queen Victoria, 1882Photograph by Alexander Bassano, 1882Queen of the United Kingdom (more ...)Reign 20 June 1837 – 22 January 1901Coronation 28 June 1838Predecessor William IVSuccessor Edward VIIEmpress of IndiaReign 1 May 1876 – 22 January 1901Imperial Durbar 1 January 1877Successor Edward VIIBorn Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent24 May 1819Kensington Palace, London, EnglandDied 22 January 1901 (aged 81)Osborne House, Isle of Wight, EnglandBurial 4 February 1901Royal Mausoleum, Frogmore, WindsorSpouse Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha(m. 1840; died 1861)Issue Victoria, German EmpressEdward VII, King of the United KingdomAlice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by RhineAlfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and GothaHelena, Princess Christian of Schleswig-HolsteinPrincess Louise, Duchess of ArgyllPrince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and StrathearnPrince Leopold, Duke of AlbanyBeatrice, Princess Henry of BattenbergHouse HanoverFather Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and StrathearnMother Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-SaalfeldSignature Victoria\'s signatureVictoria (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death in 1901. Known as the Victorian era, her reign of 63 years and seven months was longer than any previous British monarch. It was a period of industrial, political, scientific, and military change within the United Kingdom, and was marked by a great expansion of the British Empire. In 1876, the British Parliament voted to grant her the additional title of Empress of India.Victoria was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (the fourth son of King George III), and Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld. After the deaths of her father and grandfather in 1820, she was raised under close supervision by her mother and her comptroller, John Conroy. She inherited the throne aged 18 after her father\'s three elder brothers died without surviving legitimate issue. Victoria, a constitutional monarch, attempted privately to influence government policy and ministerial appointments; publicly, she became a national icon who was identified with strict standards of personal morality.Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840. Their children married into royal and noble families across the continent, earning Victoria the sobriquet \"the grandmother of Europe\" and spreading haemophilia in European royalty. After Albert\'s death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances. As a result of her seclusion, British republicanism temporarily gained strength, but in the latter half of her reign, her popularity recovered. Her Golden and Diamond jubilees were times of public celebration. She died on the Isle of Wight in 1901. The last British monarch of the House of Hanover, she was succeeded by her son Edward VII of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.Birth and familyPortrait of Victoria at age 4Victoria at the age of four, by Stephen Poyntz Denning, 1823Victoria\'s father was Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the fourth son of the reigning King of the United Kingdom, George III. Until 1817, Edward\'s niece, Princess Charlotte of Wales, was the only legitimate grandchild of George III. Her death in 1817 precipitated a succession crisis that brought pressure on the Duke of Kent and his unmarried brothers to marry and have children. In 1818 he married Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, a widowed German princess with two children—Carl (1804–1856) and Feodora (1807–1872)—by her first marriage to Emich Carl, 2nd Prince of Leiningen. Her brother Leopold was Princess Charlotte\'s widower and later the first king of Belgium. The Duke and Duchess of Kent\'s only child, Victoria, was born at 4:15 a.m. on 24 May 1819 at Kensington Palace in London.[1]Victoria was christened privately by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Charles Manners-Sutton, on 24 June 1819 in the Cupola Room at Kensington Palace.[a] She was baptised Alexandrina after one of her godparents, Tsar Alexander I of Russia, and Victoria, after her mother. Additional names proposed by her parents—Georgina (or Georgiana), Charlotte, and Augusta—were dropped on the instructions of Kent\'s eldest brother George, Prince Regent.[2]At birth, Victoria was fifth in the line of succession after the four eldest sons of George III: the Prince Regent (later George IV); Frederick, Duke of York; William, Duke of Clarence (later William IV); and Victoria\'s father, Edward, Duke of Kent.[3] The Prince Regent had no surviving children, and the Duke of York had no children; further, both were estranged from their wives, who were both past child-bearing age, so the two eldest brothers were unlikely to have any further legitimate children. William and Edward married on the same day in 1818, but both of William\'s legitimate daughters died as infants. The first of these was Princess Charlotte, who was born and died on 27 March 1819, two months before Victoria was born. Victoria\'s father died in January 1820, when Victoria was less than a year old. A week later her grandfather died and was succeeded by his eldest son as George IV. Victoria was then third in line to the throne after Frederick and William. William\'s second daughter, Princess Elizabeth of Clarence, lived for twelve weeks from 10 December 1820 to 4 March 1821, and for that period Victoria was fourth in line.[4]The Duke of York died in 1827, followed by George IV in 1830; the throne passed to their next surviving brother, William, and Victoria became heir presumptive. The Regency Act 1830 made special provision for Victoria\'s mother to act as regent in case William died while Victoria was still a minor.[5] King William distrusted the Duchess\'s capacity to be regent, and in 1836 he declared in her presence that he wanted to live until Victoria\'s 18th birthday, so that a regency could be avoided.[6]Heir presumptivePortrait of Victoria with her spaniel Dash by George Hayter, 1833Victoria later described her childhood as \"rather melancholy\".[7] Her mother was extremely protective, and Victoria was raised largely isolated from other children under the so-called \"Kensington System\", an elaborate set of rules and protocols devised by the Duchess and her ambitious and domineering comptroller, Sir John Conroy, who was rumoured to be the Duchess\'s lover.[8] The system prevented the princess from meeting people whom her mother and Conroy deemed undesirable (including most of her father\'s family), and was designed to render her weak and dependent upon them.[9] The Duchess avoided the court because she was scandalised by the presence of King William\'s illegitimate children.[10] Victoria shared a bedroom with her mother every night, studied with private tutors to a regular timetable, and spent her play-hours with her dolls and her King Charles Spaniel, Dash.[11] Her lessons included French, German, Italian, and Latin,[12] but she spoke only English at home.[13]Victoria\'s sketch of herselfSelf-portrait, 1835In 1830, the Duchess of Kent and Conroy took Victoria across the centre of England to visit the Malvern Hills, stopping at towns and great country houses along the way.[14] Similar journeys to other parts of England and Wales were taken in 1832, 1833, 1834 and 1835. To the King\'s annoyance, Victoria was enthusiastically welcomed in each of the stops.[15] William compared the journeys to royal progresses and was concerned that they portrayed Victoria as his rival rather than his heir presumptive.[16] Victoria disliked the trips; the constant round of public appearances made her tired and ill, and there was little time for her to rest.[17] She objected on the grounds of the King\'s disapproval, but her mother dismissed his complaints as motivated by jealousy and forced Victoria to continue the tours.[18] At Ramsgate in October 1835, Victoria contracted a severe fever, which Conroy initially dismissed as a childish pretence.[19] While Victoria was ill, Conroy and the Duchess unsuccessfully badgered her to make Conroy her private secretary.[20] As a teenager, Victoria resisted persistent attempts by her mother and Conroy to appoint him to her staff.[21] Once queen, she banned him from her presence, but he remained in her mother\'s household.[22]By 1836, Victoria\'s maternal uncle Leopold, who had been King of the Belgians since 1831, hoped to marry her to Prince Albert,[23] the son of his brother Ernest I, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha. Leopold arranged for Victoria\'s mother to invite her Coburg relatives to visit her in May 1836, with the purpose of introducing Victoria to Albert.[24] William IV, however, disapproved of any match with the Coburgs, and instead favoured the suit of Prince Alexander of the Netherlands, second son of the Prince of Orange.[25] Victoria was aware of the various matrimonial plans and critically appraised a parade of eligible princes.[26] According to her diary, she enjoyed Albert\'s company from the beginning. After the visit she wrote, \"[Albert] is extremely handsome; his hair is about the same colour as mine; his eyes are large and blue, and he has a beautiful nose and a very sweet mouth with fine teeth; but the charm of his countenance is his expression, which is most delightful.\"[27] Alexander, on the other hand, she described as \"very plain\".[28]Victoria wrote to King Leopold, whom she considered her \"best and kindest adviser\",[29] to thank him \"for the prospect of great happiness you have contributed to give me, in the person of dear Albert ... He possesses every quality that could be desired to render me perfectly happy. He is so sensible, so kind, and so good, and so amiable too. He has besides the most pleasing and delightful exterior and appearance you can possibly see.\"[30] However at 17, Victoria, though interested in Albert, was not yet ready to marry. The parties did not undertake a formal engagement, but assumed that the match would take place in due time.[31]Early reignAccessionDrawing of two men on their knees in front of VictoriaVictoria receives the news of her accession from Lord Conyngham (left) and the Archbishop of Canterbury. Painting by Henry Tanworth Wells, 1887.Victoria turned 18 on 24 May 1837, and a regency was avoided. Less than a month later, on 20 June 1837, William IV died at the age of 71, and Victoria became Queen of the United Kingdom.[b] In her diary she wrote, \"I was awoke at 6 o\'clock by Mamma, who told me the Archbishop of Canterbury and Lord Conyngham were here and wished to see me. I got out of bed and went into my sitting-room (only in my dressing gown) and alone, and saw them. Lord Conyngham then acquainted me that my poor Uncle, the King, was no more, and had expired at 12 minutes past 2 this morning, and consequently that I am Queen.\"[32] Official documents prepared on the first day of her reign described her as Alexandrina Victoria, but the first name was withdrawn at her own wish and not used again.[33]Since 1714, Britain had shared a monarch with Hanover in Germany, but under Salic law, women were excluded from the Hanoverian succession. While Victoria inherited the British throne, her father\'s unpopular younger brother, Ernest Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, became King of Hanover. He was Victoria\'s heir presumptive until she had a child.[34]Coronation portrait by George HayterAt the time of Victoria\'s accession, the government was led by the Whig prime minister Lord Melbourne. He at once became a powerful influence on the politically inexperienced monarch, who relied on him for advice.[35] Charles Greville supposed that the widowed and childless Melbourne was \"passionately fond of her as he might be of his daughter if he had one\", and Victoria probably saw him as a father figure.[36] Her coronation took place on 28 June 1838 at Westminster Abbey. Over 400,000 visitors came to London for the celebrations.[37] She became the first sovereign to take up residence at Buckingham Palace[38] and inherited the revenues of the duchies of Lancaster and Cornwall as well as being granted a civil list allowance of £385,000 per year. Financially prudent, she paid off her father\'s debts.[39]At the start of her reign Victoria was popular,[40] but her reputation suffered in an 1839 court intrigue when one of her mother\'s ladies-in-waiting, Lady Flora Hastings, developed an abdominal growth that was widely rumoured to be an out-of-wedlock pregnancy by Sir John Conroy.[41] Victoria believed the rumours.[42] She hated Conroy, and despised \"that odious Lady Flora\",[43] because she had conspired with Conroy and the Duchess of Kent in the Kensington System.[44] At first, Lady Flora refused to submit to an intimate medical examination, until in mid-February she eventually acquiesced, and was found to be a virgin.[45] Conroy, the Hastings family, and the opposition Tories organised a press campaign implicating the Queen in the spreading of false rumours about Lady Flora.[46] When Lady Flora died in July, the post-mortem revealed a large tumour on her liver that had distended her abdomen.[47] At public appearances, Victoria was hissed and jeered as \"Mrs. Melbourne\".[48]In 1839, Melbourne resigned after Radicals and Tories (both of whom Victoria detested) voted against a bill to suspend the constitution of Jamaica. The bill removed political power from plantation owners who were resisting measures associated with the abolition of slavery.[49] The Queen commissioned a Tory, Robert Peel, to form a new ministry. At the time, it was customary for the prime minister to appoint members of the Royal Household, who were usually his political allies and their spouses. Many of the Queen\'s ladies of the bedchamber were wives of Whigs, and Peel expected to replace them with wives of Tories. In what became known as the \"bedchamber crisis\", Victoria, advised by Melbourne, objected to their removal. Peel refused to govern under the restrictions imposed by the Queen, and consequently resigned his commission, allowing Melbourne to return to office.[50]MarriageSee also: Wedding of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Wedding dress of Queen VictoriaPainting of a lavish wedding attended by richly dressed people in a magnificent roomMarriage of Victoria and Albert, painted by George HayterThough Victoria was now queen, as an unmarried young woman she was required by social convention to live with her mother, despite their differences over the Kensington System and her mother\'s continued reliance on Conroy.[51] Her mother was consigned to a remote apartment in Buckingham Palace, and Victoria often refused to see her.[52] When Victoria complained to Melbourne that her mother\'s proximity promised \"torment for many years\", Melbourne sympathised but said it could be avoided by marriage, which Victoria called a \"schocking [sic] alternative\".[53] Victoria showed interest in Albert\'s education for the future role he would have to play as her husband, but she resisted attempts to rush her into wedlock.[54]Victoria continued to praise Albert following his second visit in October 1839. Albert and Victoria felt mutual affection and the Queen proposed to him on 15 October 1839, just five days after he had arrived at Windsor.[55] They were married on 10 February 1840, in the Chapel Royal of St James\'s Palace, London. Victoria was love-struck. She spent the evening after their wedding lying down with a headache, but wrote ecstatically in her diary:I NEVER, NEVER spent such an evening!!! MY DEAREST DEAREST DEAR Albert ... his excessive love & affection gave me feelings of heavenly love & happiness I never could have hoped to have felt before! He clasped me in his arms, & we kissed each other again & again! His beauty, his sweetness & gentleness – really how can I ever be thankful enough to have such a Husband! ... to be called by names of tenderness, I have never yet heard used to me before – was bliss beyond belief! Oh! This was the happiest day of my life![56]Albert became an important political adviser as well as the Queen\'s companion, replacing Melbourne as the dominant influential figure in the first half of her life.[57] Victoria\'s mother was evicted from the palace, to Ingestre House in Belgrave Square. After the death of Victoria\'s aunt, Princess Augusta, in 1840, Victoria\'s mother was given both Clarence and Frogmore Houses.[58] Through Albert\'s mediation, relations between mother and daughter slowly improved.[59]Contemporary lithograph of Edward Oxford\'s attempt to assassinate Victoria, 1840During Victoria\'s first pregnancy in 1840, in the first few months of the marriage, 18-year-old Edward Oxford attempted to assassinate her while she was riding in a carriage with Prince Albert on her way to visit her mother. Oxford fired twice, but either both bullets missed or, as he later claimed, the guns had no shot.[60] He was tried for high treason, found not guilty by reason of insanity, committed to an insane asylum indefinitely, and later sent to live in Australia.[61] In the immediate aftermath of the attack, Victoria\'s popularity soared, mitigating residual discontent over the Hastings affair and the bedchamber crisis.[62] Her daughter, also named Victoria, was born on 21 November 1840. The Queen hated being pregnant,[63] viewed breast-feeding with disgust,[64] and thought newborn babies were ugly.[65] Nevertheless, over the following seventeen years, she and Albert had a further eight children: Albert Edward (b. 1841), Alice (b. 1843), Alfred (b. 1844), Helena (b. 1846), Louise (b. 1848), Arthur (b. 1850), Leopold (b. 1853) and Beatrice (b. 1857).The household was largely run by Victoria\'s childhood governess, Baroness Louise Lehzen from Hanover. Lehzen had been a formative influence on Victoria[66] and had supported her against the Kensington System.[67] Albert, however, thought that Lehzen was incompetent and that her mismanagement threatened his daughter\'s health. After a furious row between Victoria and Albert over the issue, Lehzen was pensioned off in 1842, and Victoria\'s close relationship with her ended.[68]Married reignPortrait by Franz Xaver Winterhalter, 1843On 29 May 1842, Victoria was riding in a carriage along The Mall, London, when John Francis aimed a pistol at her, but the gun did not fire. The assailant escaped; the following day, Victoria drove the same route, though faster and with a greater escort, in a deliberate attempt to bait Francis into taking a second aim and catch him in the act. As expected, Francis shot at her, but he was seized by plainclothes policemen, and convicted of high treason. On 3 July, two days after Francis\'s death sentence was commuted to transportation for life, John William Bean also tried to fire a pistol at the Queen, but it was loaded only with paper and tobacco and had too little charge.[69] Edward Oxford felt that the attempts were encouraged by his acquittal in 1840. Bean was sentenced to 18 months in jail.[70] In a similar attack in 1849, unemployed Irishman William Hamilton fired a powder-filled pistol at Victoria\'s carriage as it passed along Constitution Hill, London.[71] In 1850, the Queen did sustain injury when she was assaulted by a possibly insane ex-army officer, Robert Pate. As Victoria was riding in a carriage, Pate struck her with his cane, crushing her bonnet and bruising her forehead. Both Hamilton and Pate were sentenced to seven years\' transportation.[72]Melbourne\'s support in the House of Commons weakened through the early years of Victoria\'s reign, and in the 1841 general election the Whigs were defeated. Peel became prime minister, and the ladies of the bedchamber most associated with the Whigs were replaced.[73]Victoria cuddling a child next to herEarliest known photograph of Victoria, here with her eldest daughter, c. 1845[74]In 1845, Ireland was hit by a potato blight.[75] In the next four years, over a million Irish people died and another million emigrated in what became known as the Great Famine.[76] In Ireland, Victoria was labelled \"The Famine Queen\".[77][78] In January 1847 she personally donated £2,000 (equivalent to between £178,000 and £6.5 million in 2016[79]) to the British Relief Association, more than any other individual famine relief donor,[80] and also supported the Maynooth Grant to a Roman Catholic seminary in Ireland, despite Protestant opposition.[81] The story that she donated only £5 in aid to the Irish, and on the same day gave the same amount to Battersea Dogs Home, was a myth generated towards the end of the 19th century.[82]By 1846, Peel\'s ministry faced a crisis involving the repeal of the Corn Laws. Many Tories—by then known also as Conservatives—were opposed to the repeal, but Peel, some Tories (the free-trade oriented liberal conservative \"Peelites\"), most Whigs and Victoria supported it. Peel resigned in 1846, after the repeal narrowly passed, and was replaced by Lord John Russell.[83]Victoria\'s British prime ministersYear Prime Minister (party)1835 Viscount Melbourne (Whig)1841 Sir Robert Peel (Conservative)1846 Lord John Russell (W)1852 (Feb) Earl of Derby (C)1852 (Dec) Earl of Aberdeen (Peelite)1855 Viscount Palmerston (Liberal)1858 Earl of Derby (C)1859 Viscount Palmerston (L)1865 Earl Russell [Lord John Russell] (L)1866 Earl of Derby (C)1868 (Feb) Benjamin Disraeli (C)1868 (Dec) William Gladstone (L)1874 Benjamin Disraeli [Ld Beaconsfield] (C)1880 William Gladstone (L)1885 Marquess of Salisbury (C)1886 (Feb) William Gladstone (L)1886 (Jul) Marquess of Salisbury (C)1892 William Gladstone (L)1894 Earl of Rosebery (L)1895 Marquess of Salisbury (C)See List of prime ministers of Queen Victoriafor details of her British and Imperial premiersInternationally, Victoria took a keen interest in the improvement of relations between France and Britain.[84] She made and hosted several visits between the British royal family and the House of Orleans, who were related by marriage through the Coburgs. In 1843 and 1845, she and Albert stayed with King Louis Philippe I at Château d\'Eu in Normandy; she was the first British or English monarch to visit a French monarch since the meeting of Henry VIII of England and Francis I of France on the Field of the Cloth of Gold in 1520.[85] When Louis Philippe made a reciprocal trip in 1844, he became the first French king to visit a British sovereign.[86] Louis Philippe was deposed in the revolutions of 1848, and fled to exile in England.[87] At the height of a revolutionary scare in the United Kingdom in April 1848, Victoria and her family left London for the greater safety of Osborne House,[88] a private estate on the Isle of Wight that they had purchased in 1845 and redeveloped.[89] Demonstrations by Chartists and Irish nationalists failed to attract widespread support, and the scare died down without any major disturbances.[90] Victoria\'s first visit to Ireland in 1849 was a public relations success, but it had no lasting impact or effect on the growth of Irish nationalism.[91]Portrait of the young Queen by Herbert Smith, 1848Russell\'s ministry, though Whig, was not favoured by the Queen.[92] She found particularly offensive the Foreign Secretary, Lord Palmerston, who often acted without consulting the Cabinet, the Prime Minister, or the Queen.[93] Victoria complained to Russell that Palmerston sent official dispatches to foreign leaders without her knowledge, but Palmerston was retained in office and continued to act on his own initiative, despite her repeated remonstrances. It was only in 1851 that Palmerston was removed after he announced the British government\'s approval of President Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte\'s coup in France without consulting the Prime Minister.[94] The following year, President Bonaparte was declared Emperor Napoleon III, by which time Russell\'s administration had been replaced by a short-lived minority government led by Lord Derby.Photograph of a seated Victoria, dressed in black, holding an infant with her children and Prince Albert standing around herAlbert, Victoria and their nine children, 1857. Left to right: Alice, Arthur, Prince Albert, Albert Edward, Leopold, Louise, Queen Victoria with Beatrice, Alfred, Victoria, and Helena.In 1853, Victoria gave birth to her eighth child, Leopold, with the aid of the new anaesthetic, chloroform. She was so impressed by the relief it gave from the pain of childbirth that she used it again in 1857 at the birth of her ninth and final child, Beatrice, despite opposition from members of the clergy, who considered it against biblical teaching, and members of the medical profession, who thought it dangerous.[95] Victoria may have had postnatal depression after many of her pregnancies.[96] Letters from Albert to Victoria intermittently complain of her loss of self-control. For example, about a month after Leopold\'s birth Albert complained in a letter to Victoria about her \"continuance of hysterics\" over a \"miserable trifle\".[97]In early 1855, the government of Lord Aberdeen, who had replaced Derby, fell amidst recriminations over the poor management of British troops in the Crimean War. Victoria approached both Derby and Russell to form a ministry, but neither had sufficient support, and Victoria was forced to appoint Palmerston as prime minister.[98]Napoleon III, Britain\'s closest ally as a result of the Crimean War,[96] visited London in April 1855, and from 17 to 28 August the same year Victoria and Albert returned the visit.[99] Napoleon III met the couple at Boulogne and accompanied them to Paris.[100] They visited the Exposition Universelle (a successor to Albert\'s 1851 brainchild the Great Exhibition) and Napoleon I\'s tomb at Les Invalides (to which his remains had only been returned in 1840), and were guests of honour at a 1,200-guest ball at the Palace of Versailles.[101]Portrait by Winterhalter, 1859On 14 January 1858, an Italian refugee from Britain called Felice Orsini attempted to assassinate Napoleon III with a bomb made in England.[102] The ensuing diplomatic crisis destabilised the government, and Palmerston resigned. Derby was reinstated as prime minister.[103] Victoria and Albert attended the opening of a new basin at the French military port of Cherbourg on 5 August 1858, in an attempt by Napoleon III to reassure Britain that his military preparations were directed elsewhere. On her return Victoria wrote to Derby reprimanding him for the poor state of the Royal Navy in comparison to the French Navy.[104] Derby\'s ministry did not last long, and in June 1859 Victoria recalled Palmerston to office.[105]Eleven days after Orsini\'s assassination attempt in France, Victoria\'s eldest daughter married Prince Frederick William of Prussia in London. They had been betrothed since September 1855, when Princess Victoria was 14 years old; the marriage was delayed by the Queen and her husband Albert until the bride was 17.[106] The Queen and Albert hoped that their daughter and son-in-law would be a liberalising influence in the enlarging Prussian state.[107] The Queen felt \"sick at heart\" to see her daughter leave England for Germany; \"It really makes me shudder\", she wrote to Princess Victoria in one of her frequent letters, \"when I look round to all your sweet, happy, unconscious sisters, and think I must give them up too – one by one.\"[108] Almost exactly a year later, the Princess gave birth to the Queen\'s first grandchild, Wilhelm, who would become the last German Emperor.WidowhoodVictoria photographed by J. J. E. Mayall, 1860In March 1861, Victoria\'s mother died, with Victoria at her side. Through reading her mother\'s papers, Victoria discovered that her mother had loved her deeply;[109] she was heart-broken, and blamed Conroy and Lehzen for \"wickedly\" estranging her from her mother.[110] To relieve his wife during her intense and deep grief,[111] Albert took on most of her duties, despite being ill himself with chronic stomach trouble.[112] In August, Victoria and Albert visited their son, Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, who was attending army manoeuvres near Dublin, and spent a few days holidaying in Killarney. In November, Albert was made aware of gossip that his son had slept with an actress in Ireland.[113] Appalled, he travelled to Cambridge, where his son was studying, to confront him.[114] By the beginning of December, Albert was very unwell.[115] He was diagnosed with typhoid fever by William Jenner, and died on 14 December 1861. Victoria was devastated.[116] She blamed her husband\'s death on worry over the Prince of Wales\'s philandering. He had been \"killed by that dreadful business\", she said.[117] She entered a state of mourning and wore black for the remainder of her life. She avoided public appearances and rarely set foot in London in the following years.[118] Her seclusion earned her the nickname \"widow of Windsor\".[119] Her weight increased through comfort eating, which reinforced her aversion to public appearances.[120]Victoria\'s self-imposed isolation from the public diminished the popularity of the monarchy, and encouraged the growth of the republican movement.[121] She did undertake her official government duties, yet chose to remain secluded in her royal residences—Windsor Castle, Osborne House, and the private estate in Scotland that she and Albert had acquired in 1847, Balmoral Castle. In March 1864 a protester stuck a notice on the railings of Buckingham Palace that announced \"these commanding premises to be let or sold in consequence of the late occupant\'s declining business\".[122] Her uncle Leopold wrote to her advising her to appear in public. She agreed to visit the gardens of the Royal Horticultural Society at Kensington and take a drive through London in an open carriage.[123]Victoria and John Brown at Balmoral, 1863. Photograph by G. W. Wilson.Through the 1860s, Victoria relied increasingly on a manservant from Scotland, John Brown.[124] Rumours of a romantic connection and even a secret marriage appeared in print, and some referred to the Queen as \"Mrs. Brown\".[125] The story of their relationship was the subject of the 1997 movie Mrs. Brown. A painting by Sir Edwin Henry Landseer depicting the Queen with Brown was exhibited at the Royal Academy, and Victoria published a book, Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands, which featured Brown prominently and in which the Queen praised him highly.[126]Palmerston died in 1865, and after a brief ministry led by Russell, Derby returned to power. In 1866, Victoria attended the State Opening of Parliament for the first time since Albert\'s death.[127] The following year she supported the passing of the Reform Act 1867 which doubled the electorate by extending the franchise to many urban working men,[128] though she was not in favour of votes for women.[129] Derby resigned in 1868, to be replaced by Benjamin Disraeli, who charmed Victoria. \"Everyone likes flattery,\" he said, \"and when you come to royalty you should lay it on with a trowel.\"[130] With the phrase \"we authors, Ma\'am\", he complimented her.[131] Disraeli\'s ministry only lasted a matter of months, and at the end of the year his Liberal rival, William Ewart Gladstone, was appointed prime minister. Victoria found Gladstone\'s demeanour far less appealing; he spoke to her, she is thought to have complained, as though she were \"a public meeting rather than a woman\".[132]In 1870 republican sentiment in Britain, fed by the Queen\'s seclusion, was boosted after the establishment of the Third French Republic.[133] A republican rally in Trafalgar Square demanded Victoria\'s removal, and Radical MPs spoke against her.[134] In August and September 1871, she was seriously ill with an abscess in her arm, which Joseph Lister successfully lanced and treated with his new antiseptic carbolic acid spray.[135] In late November 1871, at the height of the republican movement, the Prince of Wales contracted typhoid fever, the disease that was believed to have killed his father, and Victoria was fearful her son would die.[136] As the tenth anniversary of her husband\'s death approached, her son\'s condition grew no better, and Victoria\'s distress continued.[137] To general rejoicing, he recovered.[138] Mother and son attended a public parade through London and a grand service of thanksgiving in St Paul\'s Cathedral on 27 February 1872, and republican feeling subsided.[139]On the last day of February 1872, two days after the thanksgiving service, 17-year-old Arthur O\'Connor, a great-nephew of Irish MP Feargus O\'Connor, waved an unloaded pistol at Victoria\'s open carriage just after she had arrived at Buckingham Palace. Brown, who was attending the Queen, grabbed him and O\'Connor was later sentenced to 12 months\' imprisonment,[140] and a birching.[141] As a result of the incident, Victoria\'s popularity recovered further.[142]EmpressWikisource has original text related to this article:Proclamation by the Queen in Council, to the princes, chiefs, and people of IndiaAfter the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British East India Company, which had ruled much of India, was dissolved, and Britain\'s possessions and protectorates on the Indian subcontinent were formally incorporated into the British Empire. The Queen had a relatively balanced view of the conflict, and condemned atrocities on both sides.[143] She wrote of \"her feelings of horror and regret at the result of this bloody civil war\",[144] and insisted, urged on by Albert, that an official proclamation announcing the transfer of power from the company to the state \"should breathe feelings of generosity, benevolence and religious toleration\".[145] At her behest, a reference threatening the \"undermining of native religions and customs\" was replaced by a passage guaranteeing religious freedom.[145]Victoria admired Heinrich von Angeli\'s 1875 portrait of her for its \"honesty, total want of flattery, and appreciation of character\".[146]In the 1874 general election, Disraeli was returned to power. He passed the Public Worship Regulation Act 1874, which removed Catholic rituals from the Anglican liturgy and which Victoria strongly supported.[147] She preferred short, simple services, and personally considered herself more aligned with the presbyterian Church of Scotland than the episcopal Church of England.[148] Disraeli also pushed the Royal Titles Act 1876 through Parliament, so that Victoria took the title \"Empress of India\" from 1 May 1876.[149] The new title was proclaimed at the Delhi Durbar of 1 January 1877.[150]On 14 December 1878, the anniversary of Albert\'s death, Victoria\'s second daughter Alice, who had married Louis of Hesse, died of diphtheria in Darmstadt. Victoria noted the coincidence of the dates as \"almost incredible and most mysterious\".[151] In May 1879, she became a great-grandmother (on the birth of Princess Feodora of Saxe-Meiningen) and passed her \"poor old 60th birthday\". She felt \"aged\" by \"the loss of my beloved child\".[152]Between April 1877 and February 1878, she threatened five times to abdicate while pressuring Disraeli to act against Russia during the Russo-Turkish War, but her threats had no impact on the events or their conclusion with the Congress of Berlin.[153] Disraeli\'s expansionist foreign policy, which Victoria endorsed, led to conflicts such as the Anglo-Zulu War and the Second Anglo-Afghan War. \"If we are to maintain our position as a first-rate Power\", she wrote, \"we must ... be Prepared for attacks and wars, somewhere or other, CONTINUALLY.\"[154] Victoria saw the expansion of the British Empire as civilising and benign, protecting native peoples from more aggressive powers or cruel rulers: \"It is not in our custom to annexe countries\", she said, \"unless we are obliged & forced to do so.\"[155] To Victoria\'s dismay, Disraeli lost the 1880 general election, and Gladstone returned as prime minister.[156] When Disraeli died the following year, she was blinded by \"fast falling tears\",[157] and erected a memorial tablet \"placed by his grateful Sovereign and Friend, Victoria R.I.\"[158]Later yearsVictorian farthing, 1884On 2 March 1882, Roderick Maclean, a disgruntled poet apparently offended by Victoria\'s refusal to accept one of his poems,[159] shot at the Queen as her carriage left Windsor railway station. Gordon Chesney Wilson and another schoolboy from Eton College struck him with their umbrellas, until he was hustled away by a policeman.[160] Victoria was outraged when he was found not guilty by reason of insanity,[161] but was so pleased by the many expressions of loyalty after the attack that she said it was \"worth being shot at—to see how much one is loved\".[162]On 17 March 1883, Victoria fell down some stairs at Windsor, which left her lame until July; she never fully recovered and was plagued with rheumatism thereafter.[163] John Brown died 10 days after her accident, and to the consternation of her private secretary, Sir Henry Ponsonby, Victoria began work on a eulogistic biography of Brown.[164] Ponsonby and Randall Davidson, Dean of Windsor, who had both seen early drafts, advised Victoria against publication, on the grounds that it would stoke the rumours of a love affair.[165] The manuscript was destroyed.[166] In early 1884, Victoria did publish More Leaves from a Journal of a Life in the Highlands, a sequel to her earlier book, which she dedicated to her \"devoted personal attendant and faithful friend John Brown\".[167] On the day after the first anniversary of Brown\'s death, Victoria was informed by telegram that her youngest son, Leopold, had died in Cannes. He was \"the dearest of my dear sons\", she lamented.[168] The following month, Victoria\'s youngest child, Beatrice, met and fell in love with Prince Henry of Battenberg at the wedding of Victoria\'s granddaughter Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine to Henry\'s brother Prince Louis of Battenberg. Beatrice and Henry planned to marry, but Victoria opposed the match at first, wishing to keep Beatrice at home to act as her companion. After a year, she was won around to the marriage by their promise to remain living with and attending her.[169]Extent of the British Empire in 1898Victoria was pleased when Gladstone resigned in 1885 after his budget was defeated.[170] She thought his government was \"the worst I have ever had\", and blamed him for the death of General Gordon at Khartoum.[171] Gladstone was replaced by Lord Salisbury. Salisbury\'s government only lasted a few months, however, and Victoria was forced to recall Gladstone, whom she referred to as a \"half crazy & really in many ways ridiculous old man\".[172] Gladstone attempted to pass a bill granting Ireland home rule, but to Victoria\'s glee it was defeated.[173] In the ensuing election, Gladstone\'s party lost to Salisbury\'s and the government switched hands again.Golden JubileeThe Munshi stands over Victoria as she works at a deskVictoria and the Munshi Abdul KarimIn 1887, the British Empire celebrated Victoria\'s Golden Jubilee. She marked the fiftieth anniversary of her accession on 20 June with a banquet to which 50 kings and princes were invited. The following day, she participated in a procession and attended a thanksgiving service in Westminster Abbey.[174] By this time, Victoria was once again extremely popular.[175] Two days later on 23 June,[176] she engaged two Indian Muslims as waiters, one of whom was Abdul Karim. He was soon promoted to \"Munshi\": teaching her Urdu and acting as a clerk.[177][178][179] Her family and retainers were appalled, and accused Abdul Karim of spying for the Muslim Patriotic League, and biasing the Queen against the Hindus.[180] Equerry Frederick Ponsonby (the son of Sir Henry) discovered that the Munshi had lied about his parentage, and reported to Lord Elgin, Viceroy of India, \"the Munshi occupies very much the same position as John Brown used to do.\"[181] Victoria dismissed their complaints as racial prejudice.[182] Abdul Karim remained in her service until he returned to India with a pension, on her death.[183]Victoria\'s eldest daughter became empress consort of Germany in 1888, but she was widowed a little over three months later, and Victoria\'s eldest grandchild became German Emperor as Wilhelm II. Victoria and Albert\'s hopes of a liberal Germany would go unfulfilled, as Wilhelm was a firm believer in autocracy. Victoria thought he had \"little heart or Zartgefühl [tact] – and ... his conscience & intelligence have been completely wharped [sic]\".[184]Gladstone returned to power after the 1892 general election; he was 82 years old. Victoria objected when Gladstone proposed appointing the Radical MP Henry Labouchère to the Cabinet, so Gladstone agreed not to appoint him.[185] In 1894, Gladstone retired and, without consulting the outgoing prime minister, Victoria appointed Lord Rosebery as prime minister.[186] His government was weak, and the following year Lord Salisbury replaced him. Salisbury remained prime minister for the remainder of Victoria\'s reign.[187]Diamond JubileeSeated Victoria in embroidered and lace dressVictoria in her official Diamond Jubilee photograph by W. & D. DowneyOn 23 September 1896, Victoria surpassed her grandfather George III as the longest-reigning monarch in British history. The Queen requested that any special celebrations be delayed until 1897, to coincide with her Diamond Jubilee,[188] which was made a festival of the British Empire at the suggestion of the Colonial Secretary, Joseph Chamberlain.[189] The prime ministers of all the self-governing Dominions were invited to London for the festivities.[190] One reason for including the prime ministers of the Dominions and excluding foreign heads of state was to avoid having to invite Victoria\'s grandson, Wilhelm II of Germany, who, it was feared, might cause trouble at the event.[191]The Queen\'s Diamond Jubilee procession on 22 June 1897 followed a route six miles long through London and included troops from all over the empire. The procession paused for an open-air service of thanksgiving held outside St Paul\'s Cathedral, throughout which Victoria sat in her open carriage, to avoid her having to climb the steps to enter the building. The celebration was marked by vast crowds of spectators and great outpourings of affection for the 78-year-old Queen.[192]Queen Victoria in Dublin, 1900Victoria visited mainland Europe regularly for holidays. In 1889, during a stay in Biarritz, she became the first reigning monarch from Britain to set foot in Spain when she crossed the border for a brief visit.[193] By April 1900, the Boer War was so unpopular in mainland Europe that her annual trip to France seemed inadvisable. Instead, the Queen went to Ireland for the first time since 1861, in part to acknowledge the contribution of Irish regiments to the South African war.[194]Death and successionPortrait by Heinrich von Angeli, 1899In July 1900, Victoria\'s second son, Alfred (\"Affie\"), died. \"Oh, God! My poor darling Affie gone too\", she wrote in her journal. \"It is a horrible year, nothing but sadness & horrors of one kind & another.\"[195]Following a custom she maintained throughout her widowhood, Victoria spent the Christmas of 1900 at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight. Rheumatism in her legs had rendered her disabled, and her eyesight was clouded by cataracts.[196] Through early January, she felt \"weak and unwell\",[197] and by mid-January she was \"drowsy ... dazed, [and] confused\".[198] She died on 22 January 1901, at half past six in the evening, at the age of 81.[199] Her son and successor, King Edward VII, and her eldest grandson, Emperor Wilhelm II, were at her deathbed.[200] Her favourite pet Pomeranian, Turi, was laid upon her deathbed as a last request.[201]Poster proclaiming a day of mourning in Toronto on the day of Victoria\'s funeralIn 1897, Victoria had written instructions for her funeral, which was to be military as befitting a soldier\'s daughter and the head of the army,[96] and white instead of black.[202] On 25 January, Edward, Wilhelm, and her third son, Arthur, helped lift her body into the coffin.[203] She was dressed in a white dress and her wedding veil.[204] An array of mementos commemorating her extended family, friends and servants were laid in the coffin with her, at her request, by her doctor and dressers. One of Albert\'s dressing gowns was placed by her side, with a plaster cast of his hand, while a lock of John Brown\'s hair, along with a picture of him, was placed in her left hand concealed from the view of the family by a carefully positioned bunch of flowers.[96][205] Items of jewellery placed on Victoria included the wedding ring of John Brown\'s mother, given to her by Brown in 1883.[96] Her funeral was held on Saturday 2 February, in St George\'s Chapel, Windsor Castle, and after two days of lying-in-state, she was interred beside Prince Albert in the Royal Mausoleum, Frogmore, at Windsor Great Park.[206]With a reign of 63 years, seven months, and two days, Victoria was the longest-reigning British monarch and the longest-reigning queen regnant in world history, until her great-great-granddaughter Elizabeth II surpassed her on 9 September 2015.[207] She was the last monarch of Britain from the House of Hanover; her son and successor, Edward VII, belonged to her husband\'s House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.LegacySee also: Cultural depictions of Queen VictoriaVictoria smilingVictoria amused. The remark \"We are not amused\" is attributed to her but there is no direct evidence that she ever said it,[96][208] and she denied doing so.[209]According to one of her biographers, Giles St Aubyn, Victoria wrote an average of 2,500 words a day during her adult life.[210] From July 1832 until just before her death, she kept a detailed journal, which eventually encompassed 122 volumes.[211] After Victoria\'s death, her youngest daughter, Princess Beatrice, was appointed her literary executor. Beatrice transcribed and edited the diaries covering Victoria\'s accession onwards, and burned the originals in the process.[212] Despite this destruction, much of the diaries still exist. In addition to Beatrice\'s edited copy, Lord Esher transcribed the volumes from 1832 to 1861 before Beatrice destroyed them.[213] Part of Victoria\'s extensive correspondence has been published in volumes edited by A. C. Benson, Hector Bolitho, George Earle Buckle, Lord Esher, Roger Fulford, and Richard Hough among others.[214]Bronze statue of winged victory mounted on a marble four-sided base with a marble figure on each sideThe Victoria Memorial in front of Buckingham Palace was erected as part of the remodelling of the façade of the Palace a decade after her death.Victoria was physically unprepossessing—she was stout, dowdy and only about five feet (1.5 metres) tall—but she succeeded in projecting a grand image.[215] She experienced unpopularity during the first years of her widowhood, but was well liked during the 1880s and 1890s, when she embodied the empire as a benevolent matriarchal figure.[216] Only after the release of her diary and letters did the extent of her political influence become known to the wider public.[96][217] Biographies of Victoria written before much of the primary material became available, such as Lytton Strachey\'s Queen Victoria of 1921, are now considered out of date.[218] The biographies written by Elizabeth Longford and Cecil Woodham-Smith, in 1964 and 1972 respectively, are still widely admired.[219] They, and others, conclude that as a person Victoria was emotional, obstinate, honest, and straight-talking.[220] Contrary to popular belief, her staff and family recorded that Victoria \"was immensely amused and roared with laughter\" on many occasions.[221]Through Victoria\'s reign, the gradual establishment of a modern constitutional monarchy in Britain continued. Reforms of the voting system increased the power of the House of Commons at the expense of the House of Lords and the monarch.[222] In 1867, Walter Bagehot wrote that the monarch only retained \"the right to be consulted, the right to encourage, and the right to warn\".[223] As Victoria\'s monarchy became more symbolic than political, it placed a strong emphasis on morality and family values, in contrast to the sexual, financial and personal scandals that had been associated with previous members of the House of Hanover and which had discredited the monarchy. The concept of the \"family monarchy\", with which the burgeoning middle classes could identify, was solidified.[224]Descendants and haemophiliaVictoria\'s links with Europe\'s royal families earned her the nickname \"the grandmother of Europe\".[225] Of the 42 grandchildren of Victoria and Albert, 34 survived to adulthood. Their living descendants include Elizabeth II; Harald V of Norway; Carl XVI Gustaf of Sweden; Margrethe II of Denmark; and Felipe VI of Spain.Victoria\'s youngest son, Leopold, was affected by the blood-clotting disease haemophilia B and at least two of her five daughters, Alice and Beatrice, were carriers. Royal haemophiliacs descended from Victoria included her great-grandsons, Alexei Nikolaevich, Tsarevich of Russia; Alfonso, Prince of Asturias; and Infante Gonzalo of Spain.[226] The presence of the disease in Victoria\'s descendants, but not in her ancestors, led to modern speculation that her true father was not the Duke of Kent, but a haemophiliac.[227] There is no documentary evidence of a haemophiliac in connection with Victoria\'s mother, and as male carriers always had the disease, even if such a man had existed he would have been seriously ill.[228] It is more likely that the mutation arose spontaneously because Victoria\'s father was over 50 at the time of her conception and haemophilia arises more frequently in the children of older fathers.[229] Spontaneous mutations account for about a third of cases.[230]NamesakesThe Victoria Memorial in Kolkata, IndiaAround the world, places and memorials are dedicated to her, especially in the Commonwealth nations. Places named after her include Africa\'s largest lake, Victoria Falls, the capitals of British Columbia (Victoria) and Saskatchewan (Regina), two Australian states (Victoria and Queensland), and the capital of the island nation of Seychelles.The Victoria Cross was introduced in 1856 to reward acts of valour during the Crimean War,[231] and it remains the highest British, Canadian, Australian, and New Zealand award for bravery. Victoria Day is a Canadian statutory holiday and a local public holiday in parts of Scotland celebrated on the last Monday before or on 24 May (Queen Victoria\'s birthday).Titles, styles, honours, and armsTitles and styles24 May 1819 – 20 June 1837: Her Royal Highness Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent20 June 1837 – 22 January 1901: Her Majesty The QueenAt the end of her reign, the Queen\'s full style was: \"Her Majesty Victoria, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland Queen, Defender of the Faith, Empress of India\".[232]HonoursBritish honoursRoyal Family Order of King George IV, 1826[233]Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Star of India, 25 June 1861[234]Founder and Sovereign of the Royal Order of Victoria and Albert, 10 February 1862[235]Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Crown of India, 1 January 1878[236]Founder and Sovereign of the Order of the Indian Empire, 1 January 1878[237]Founder and Sovereign of the Royal Red Cross, 27 April 1883[238]Founder and Sovereign of the Distinguished Service Order, 6 November 1886[239]Albert Medal of the Royal Society of Arts, 1887[240]Founder and Sovereign of the Royal Victorian Order, 23 April 1896[241]Foreign honoursSpain:Dame of the Order of Queen Maria Luisa, 21 December 1833[242]Grand Cross of the Order of Charles III[243]Portugal:Dame of the Order of Queen Saint Isabel, 23 February 1836[244]Grand Cross of Our Lady of Conception[243]Russia: Grand Cross of St. Catherine, 26 June 1837[245]France: Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, 5 September 1843[246]Mexico: Grand Cross of the National Order of Guadalupe, 1854[247]Prussia: Dame of the Order of Louise, 1st Division, 11 June 1857[248]Brazil: Grand Cross of the Order of Pedro I, 3 December 1872[249]Persia:[250]Order of the Sun, 1st Class in Diamonds, 20 June 1873Order of the August Portrait, 20 June 1873Siam:Grand Cross of the White Elephant, 1880[251]Dame of the Order of the Royal House of Chakri, 1887[252]Hawaii: Grand Cross of the Order of Kamehameha I, with Collar, July 1881[253]Serbia:[254][255]Grand Cross of the Cross of Takovo, 1882Grand Cross of the White Eagle, 1883Grand Cross of St. Sava, 1897Hesse and by Rhine: Dame of the Golden Lion, 25 April 1885[256]Bulgaria: Order of the Bulgarian Red Cross, August 1887[257]Ethiopia: Grand Cross of the Seal of Solomon, 22 June 1897 – Diamond Jubilee gift[258]Montenegro: Grand Cross of the Order of Prince Danilo I, 1897[259]Saxe-Coburg and Gotha: Silver Wedding Medal of Duke Alfred and Duchess Marie, 23 January 1899[260]ArmsAs Sovereign, Victoria used the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom. Before her accession, she received no grant of arms. As she could not succeed to the throne of Hanover, her arms did not carry the Hanoverian symbols that were used by her immediate predecessors. Her arms have been borne by all of her successors on the throne.Outside Scotland, the blazon for the shield—also used on the Royal Standard—is: Quarterly: I and IV, Gules, three lions passant guardant in pale Or (for England); II, Or, a lion rampant within a double tressure flory-counter-flory Gules (for Scotland); III, Azure, a harp Or stringed Argent (for Ireland). In Scotland, the first and fourth quarters are occupied by the Scottish lion, and the second by the English lions. The crests, mottoes, and supporters also differ in and outside Scotland.Coat of Arms of the United Kingdom (1837-1952).svgCoat of Arms of the United Kingdom in Scotland (1837-1952).svgRoyal arms (outside Scotland) Royal arms (in Scotland)FamilyVictoria\'s family in 1846 by Franz Xaver Winterhalter.Left to right: Prince Alfred and the Prince of Wales; the Queen and Prince Albert; Princesses Alice, Helena and Victoria.IssueSee also: Descendants of Queen Victoria and Royal descendants of Queen Victoria and King Christian IXName Birth Death Spouse and children[232][261]Victoria, Princess Royal 21 November1840 5 August1901 Married 1858, Frederick, later German Emperor and King of Prussia (1831–1888);4 sons (including Wilhelm II, German Emperor), 4 daughters (including Queen Sophia of Greece)Edward VII of the United Kingdom 9 November1841 6 May1910 Married 1863, Princess Alexandra of Denmark (1844–1925);3 sons (including King George V of the United Kingdom), 3 daughters (including Queen Maud of Norway)Princess Alice 25 April1843 14 December1878 Married 1862, Louis IV, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine (1837–1892);2 sons, 5 daughters (including Empress Alexandra Feodorovna of Russia)Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha 6 August1844 31 July1900 Married 1874, Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia (1853–1920);2 sons (1 stillborn), 4 daughters (including Queen Marie of Romania)Princess Helena 25 May1846 9 June1923 Married 1866, Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein (1831–1917);4 sons (1 stillborn), 2 daughtersPrincess Louise 18 March1848 3 December1939 Married 1871, John Campbell, Marquess of Lorne, later 9th Duke of Argyll (1845–1914);no issuePrince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn 1 May1850 16 January1942 Married 1879, Princess Louise Margaret of Prussia (1860–1917);1 son, 2 daughters (including Crown Princess Margaret of Sweden)Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany 7 April1853 28 March1884 Married 1882, Princess Helena of Waldeck and Pyrmont (1861–1922);1 son, 1 daughterPrincess Beatrice 14 April1857 26 October1944 Married 1885, Prince Henry of Battenberg (1858–1896);3 sons, 1 daughter (Queen Victoria Eugenie of Spain)AncestryAncestors of Queen Victoria[262]Family tree Red borders indicate British monarchs Bold borders indicate children of British monarchsFamily of Queen Victoria, spanning the reigns of her grandfather, George III, to her grandson, George VNotes Her godparents were Tsar Alexander I of Russia (represented by her uncle Frederick, Duke of York), her uncle George, Prince Regent, her aunt Queen Charlotte of Württemberg (represented by Victoria\'s aunt Princess Augusta) and Victoria\'s maternal grandmother the Dowager Duchess of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (represented by Victoria\'s aunt Princess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester and Edinburgh). Under section 2 of the Regency Act 1830, the Accession Council\'s proclamation declared Victoria as the King\'s successor \"saving the rights of any issue of His late Majesty King William the Fourth which may be borne of his late Majesty\'s Consort\". \"No. 19509\". The London Gazette. 20 June 1837. p. 1581.ReferencesCitations Hibbert, pp. 3–12; Strachey, pp. 1–17; Woodham-Smith, pp. 15–29 Hibbert, pp. 12–13; Longford, p. 23; Woodham-Smith, pp. 34–35 Longford, p. 24 Worsley, p. 41. Hibbert, p. 31; St Aubyn, p. 26; Woodham-Smith, p. 81 Hibbert, p. 46; Longford, p. 54; St Aubyn, p. 50; Waller, p. 344; Woodham-Smith, p. 126 Hibbert, p. 19; Marshall, p. 25 Hibbert, p. 27; Longford, pp. 35–38, 118–119; St Aubyn, pp. 21–22; Woodham-Smith, pp. 70–72. The rumours were false in the opinion of these biographers. 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(1998), Victoria\'s Daughters, New York: St. Martin\'s Press, ISBN 0-312-24496-7Potts, D. M.; Potts, W. T. W. (1995), Queen Victoria\'s Gene: Haemophilia and the Royal Family, Stroud: Alan Sutton, ISBN 0-7509-1199-9St. Aubyn, Giles (1991), Queen Victoria: A Portrait, London: Sinclair-Stevenson, ISBN 1-85619-086-2Strachey, Lytton (1921), Queen Victoria, London: Chatto and WindusWaller, Maureen (2006), Sovereign Ladies: The Six Reigning Queens of England, London: John Murray, ISBN 0-7195-6628-2Weintraub, Stanley (1997), Albert: Uncrowned King, London: John Murray, ISBN 0-7195-5756-9Woodham-Smith, Cecil (1972), Queen Victoria: Her Life and Times 1819–1861, London: Hamish Hamilton, ISBN 0-241-02200-2Worsley, Lucy (2018), Queen Victoria – Daughter, Wife, Mother, Widow, London: Hodder & Stoughton Ltd, ISBN 978-1-4736-5138-8Primary sourcesBenson, A. C.; Esher, Viscount, eds. 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(1912), The Girlhood of Queen Victoria: A Selection from Her Majesty\'s Diaries Between the Years 1832 and 1840, London: John MurrayFulford, Roger, ed. (1964), Dearest Child: Letters Between Queen Victoria and the Princess Royal, 1858–1861, London: Evans BrothersFulford, Roger, ed. (1968), Dearest Mama: Letters Between Queen Victoria and the Crown Princess of Prussia, 1861–1864, London: Evans BrothersFulford, Roger, ed. (1971), Beloved Mama: Private Correspondence of Queen Victoria and the German Crown Princess, 1878–1885, London: Evans BrothersFulford, Roger, ed. (1971), Your Dear Letter: Private Correspondence of Queen Victoria and the Crown Princess of Prussia, 1863–1871, London: Evans BrothersFulford, Roger, ed. (1976), Darling Child: Private Correspondence of Queen Victoria and the German Crown Princess of Prussia, 1871–1878, London: Evans BrothersHibbert, Christopher, ed. (1984), Queen Victoria in Her Letters and Journals, London: John Murray, ISBN 0-7195-4107-7Hough, Richard, ed. (1975), Advice to a Grand-daughter: Letters from Queen Victoria to Princess Victoria of Hesse, London: Heinemann, ISBN 0-434-34861-9Jagow, Kurt, ed. (1938), Letters of the Prince Consort 1831–1861, London: John MurrayMortimer, Raymond, ed. (1961), Queen Victoria: Leaves from a Journal, New York: Farrar, Straus & CudahyPonsonby, Frederick, ed. (1930), Letters of the Empress Frederick, London: MacmillanRamm, Agatha, ed. (1990), Beloved and Darling Child: Last Letters between Queen Victoria and Her Eldest Daughter, 1886–1901, Stroud: Sutton Publishing, ISBN 978-0-86299-880-6Victoria, Queen (1868), Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands from 1848 to 1861, London: Smith, ElderVictoria, Queen (1884), More Leaves from the Journal of Our Life in the Highlands from 1862 to 1882, London: Smith, ElderFurther readingArnstein, Walter L. (2003), Queen Victoria, New York: Palgrave Macmillan, ISBN 978-0-333-63806-4Baird, Julia (2016), Victoria The Queen: An Intimate Biography of the Woman Who Ruled an Empire, New York: Random House, ISBN 978-1-4000-6988-0Cadbury, Deborah (2017), Queen Victoria\'s Matchmaking: The Royal Marriages That Shaped Europe, BloomsburyCarter, Sarah; Nugent, Maria Nugent, eds. (2016), Mistress of everything: Queen Victoria in Indigenous worlds, Manchester University PressEyck, Frank (1959), The Prince Consort: a political biography, ChattoGardiner, Juliet (1997), Queen Victoria, London: Collins and Brown, ISBN 978-1-85585-469-7Homans, Margaret; Munich, Adrienne, eds. (1997), Remaking Queen Victoria, Cambridge University PressHomans, Margaret (1997), Royal Representations: Queen Victoria and British Culture, 1837–1876Hough, Richard (1996), Victoria and Albert, St. Martin\'s Press, ISBN 978-0-312-30385-3James, Robert Rhodes (1983), Albert, Prince Consort: A Biography, Hamish Hamilton, ISBN 9780394407630Kingsley Kent, Susan (2015), Queen Victoria: Gender and EmpireLyden, Anne M. (2014), A Royal Passion: Queen Victoria and Photography, Los Angeles: Getty Publications, ISBN 978-1-60606-155-8Ridley, Jane (2015), Victoria: Queen, Matriarch, Empress, PenguinTaylor, Miles (2020), \"The Bicentenary of Queen Victoria\", Journal of British Studies, 59: 121–135, doi:10.1017/jbr.2019.245, S2CID 213433777Weintraub, Stanley (1987), Victoria: Biography of a Queen, London: HarperCollins, ISBN 978-0-04-923084-2Wilson, A. N. (2014), Victoria: A Life, London: Atlantic Books, ISBN 978-1-84887-956-0External linksListen to this article (1 hour and 2 minutes)1:01:53Spoken Wikipedia iconThis audio file was created from a revision of this article dated 20 July 2014, and does not reflect subsequent edits.(Audio help · More spoken articles)Queen Victoriaat Wikipedia\'s sister projectsMedia from CommonsQuotations from WikiquoteTexts from WikisourceData from WikidataPortraits of Queen Victoria at the National Portrait Gallery, London Edit this at WikidataQueen Victoria\'s Journals, online from the Royal Archive and Bodleian LibraryWorks by Queen Victoria at Project GutenbergWorks by or about Queen Victoria at Internet ArchiveWorks by Queen Victoria at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)Newspaper clippings about Queen Victoria in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBWQueen VictoriaHouse of HanoverCadet branch of the House of WelfBorn: 24 May 1819 Died: 22 January 1901Regnal titlesPreceded byWilliam IVQueen of the United Kingdom20 June 1837 – 22 January 1901 Succeeded byEdward VIIVacantTitle last held byBahadur Shah IIas Mughal emperor Empress of India1 May 1876 – 22 January 1901vteQueen VictoriaEvents Coronation HonoursHackpen White HorseWedding Wedding dressGolden Jubilee HonoursMedalPolice MedalClock Tower, WeymouthClock Tower, BrightonBustAdelaide Jubilee International ExhibitionDiamond Jubilee HonoursMedalJubilee DiamondJubilee TowerCherries jubileeRecessional (poem)Cunningham Clock TowerDevonshire House BallReign Bedchamber crisisPrime MinistersEdward OxfordEmpress of IndiaJohn William BeanVictorian eraVictorian moralityVisits to ManchesterForeign visitsState funeralMausoleumFamily Albert, Prince Consort (husband)Victoria, Princess Royal (daughter)Edward VII (son)Princess Alice of the United Kingdom (daughter)Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (son)Princess Helena of the United Kingdom (daughter)Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll (daughter)Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn (son)Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany (son)Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom (daughter)Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn (father)Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (mother)DescendantsRoyal descendantsPrincess Feodora of Leiningen (half-sister)Carl, 3rd Prince of Leiningen (half-brother)Early life Kensington SystemJohn ConroyVictoire ConroyLouise LehzenLady Flora HastingsCharlotte PercyGeorge DavysLegitimacyHonours PlacesEmpire DayRoyal Family OrderVictoria DayVictoria Day (Scotland)Victoria CrossVictoria (plant)Depictions Film Sixty Years a Queen (1913)Victoria in Dover (1936)Victoria the Great (1937)Sixty Glorious Years (1938)Victoria in Dover (1954)Mrs Brown (1997)The Young Victoria (2009)Victoria & Abdul (2017)The Black Prince (2017)Dolittle (2020)Television Happy and Glorious (1952)Victoria Regina (1961)The Young Victoria (1963)Victoria & Albert (2001)Looking for Victoria (2003)Royal Upstairs Downstairs (2011)Victoria (2016–2019)Stage Victoria and Merrie England (1897)Victoria Regina (1934)I and Albert (1972)Statues andMemorials List of statuesLondon MemorialStatueSquareLeedsSt cairnsGuernseyIsle of ManValletta StatueGateWinnipegMontreal SquareVictoria, British ColumbiaTorontoReginaBangaloreHong KongKolkataVisakhapatnamPenangSydney \"The Widow at Windsor\" (1892)\"Recessional\" (1897)Songs VictoriaChoral SongsStamps British Penny Black VR officialPenny BlueTwo penny bluePenny RedEmbossed stampsHalfpenny Rose RedThree Halfpence RedPenny Venetian RedPenny LilacLilac and Green IssueJubilee IssueColonial Chalon headCanada 12d blackCanada 2c Large QueenCeylon Dull RoseIndia Inverted Head 4 annasMalta Halfpenny YellowMauritius \"Post Office\" stampsRelated Osborne HouseQueen Victoria\'s journalsJohn BrownAbdul KarimPets DashDiamond CrownvteEnglish, Scottish and British monarchsMonarchs of England until 1603 Monarchs of Scotland until 1603Alfred the GreatEdward the ElderÆlfweardÆthelstanEdmund IEadredEadwigEdgar the PeacefulEdward the MartyrÆthelred the UnreadySweynEdmund IronsideCnutHarold IHarthacnutEdward the ConfessorHarold GodwinsonEdgar ÆthelingWilliam IWilliam IIHenry IStephenMatildaHenry IIHenry the Young KingRichard IJohnHenry IIIEdward IEdward IIEdward IIIRichard IIHenry IVHenry VHenry VIEdward IVEdward VRichard IIIHenry VIIHenry VIIIEdward VIJaneMary I and PhilipElizabeth IKenneth I MacAlpinDonald IConstantine IÁedGiricEochaidDonald IIConstantine IIMalcolm IIndulfDubCuilénAmlaíbKenneth IIConstantine IIIKenneth IIIMalcolm IIDuncan IMacbethLulachMalcolm IIIDonald IIIDuncan IIEdgarAlexander IDavid IMalcolm IVWilliam IAlexander IIAlexander IIIMargaretJohnRobert IDavid IIEdward BalliolRobert IIRobert IIIJames IJames IIJames IIIJames IVJames VMary IJames VIMonarchs of England and Scotland after the Union of the Crowns from 1603James I and VICharles ICharles IIJames II and VIIWilliam III and II and Mary IIAnneBritish monarchs after the Acts of Union 1707AnneGeorge IGeorge IIGeorge IIIGeorge IVWilliam IVVictoriaEdward VIIGeorge VEdward VIIIGeorge VIElizabeth IIDebatable or disputed rulers are in italics.vteBritish princessesThe generations indicate descent from George I, who formalised the use of the titles prince and princess for members of the British royal family. Where a princess may have been or is descended from George I more than once, her most senior descent, by which she bore or bears her title, is used.1st generation Sophia Dorothea, Queen in Prussia2nd generation Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of OrangePrincess AmeliaPrincess CarolineMary, Landgravine of Hesse-KasselLouise, Queen of Denmark and Norway3rd generation Augusta, Duchess of BrunswickPrincess ElizabethPrincess LouisaCaroline Matilda, Queen of Denmark and Norway4th generation Charlotte, Princess Royal and Queen of WürttembergPrincess Augusta SophiaElizabeth, Landgravine of Hesse-HomburgPrincess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester and EdinburghPrincess SophiaPrincess AmeliaPrincess Sophia of GloucesterPrincess Caroline of Gloucester5th generation Princess Charlotte, Princess Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-SaalfeldPrincess Elizabeth of ClarenceQueen VictoriaAugusta, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-StrelitzPrincess Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck6th generation Victoria, Princess Royal and German EmpressAlice, Grand Duchess of Hesse and by RhinePrincess Helena, Princess Christian of Schleswig-HolsteinPrincess Louise, Duchess of ArgyllPrincess Beatrice, Princess Henry of BattenbergPrincess Frederica, Baroness von Pawel-RammingenPrincess Marie of Hanover7th generation Louise, Princess Royal and Duchess of FifePrincess VictoriaMaud, Queen of NorwayMarie, Queen of RomaniaGrand Duchess Victoria Feodorovna of RussiaPrincess Alexandra, Princess of Hohenlohe-LangenburgPrincess Beatrice, Duchess of GallieraMargaret, Crown Princess of SwedenPrincess Patricia, Lady Patricia RamsayPrincess Alice, Countess of AthlonePrincess Marie Louise, Princess Maximilian of BadenAlexandra, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-SchwerinPrincess Olga of Hanover8th generation Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of HarewoodPrincess Alexandra, 2nd Duchess of FifePrincess Maud, Countess of SoutheskPrincess Sibylla, Duchess of VästerbottenPrincess Caroline Mathilde of Saxe-Coburg and GothaFrederica, Queen of Greece9th generation Queen Elizabeth IIPrincess Margaret, Countess of SnowdonPrincess Alexandra, The Honourable Lady Ogilvy10th generation Anne, Princess Royal11th generation Princess Beatrice, Mrs Edoardo Mapelli MozziPrincess Eugenie, Mrs Jack BrooksbankLady Louise Mountbatten-Windsor112th generation Princess Charlotte of Cambridge1 Status debatable; see her article.vteHanoverian princesses by birthGenerations are numbered by descent from the first King of Hanover, George III.1st generation Charlotte, Queen of WürttembergPrincess Augusta SophiaElizabeth, Landgravine of Hesse-HomburgPrincess Mary, Duchess of Gloucester and EdinburghPrincess SophiaPrincess Amelia2nd generation Charlotte, Princess Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-SaalfeldPrincess Charlotte of ClarenceQueen Victoria of the United KingdomPrincess Elizabeth of ClarenceAugusta, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-StrelitzPrincess Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck3rd generation Princess Frederica, Baroness von Pawel-RammingenPrincess Marie4th generation Marie Louise, Princess Maximilian of BadenAlexandra, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-SchwerinPrincess Olga5th generation Frederica, Queen of the Hellenes6th generation Princess Marie, Countess von HochbergPrincess OlgaPrincess Alexandra, Princess of LeiningenPrincess Friederike7th generation Princess AlexandraPrincess Eugenia8th generation Princess ElisabethPrincess EleonoraPrincess SofiaAuthority control Edit this at WikidataGeneral ISNI 1VIAF 1WorldCatNational libraries NorwaySpainFrance (data)CataloniaGermanyItalyIsraelUnited StaTesla ReferraltviaJapanCzech galleries and museums VictoriaTe Papa (New Zealand)Art research institutes RKD Artists (Netherlands)Artist Names (Getty)Biographical dictionaries GermanyScientific databases CiNii (Japan)Other Faceted Application of Subject TerminologyMusicBrainz artist 2National Archives (US)RISM (France) 1Social Networks and Archival Context 2SUDOC (France) 1Trove (Australia) 1Categories: Queen Victoria1819 births1901 deathsMonarchs of the United KingdomMonarchs of the Isle of ManHeads of state of CanadaMonarchs of AustraliaHeads of state of New ZealandQueens regnant in the British Isles19th-century British monarchs20th-century British monarchsHouse of HanoverHanoverian princessesHouse of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (United Kingdom)Empresses regnantIndian empressesBritish princesses19th-century diaristsBritish diaristsFounders of English schools and collegesPeople associated with the Royal National College for the BlindPeople from KensingtonBritish people of German descentFemale critics of feminismKnights Grand Cross of the Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila ViçosaDames of the Order of Saint IsabelGrand Croix of the Légion d\'honneurGrand Crosses of the Order of St. SavaRecipients of the Order of the Cross of TakovoWhat is an Antique7What exactly is an Antique?In purist words, and based on the “official” description from the United States Customs Service, antiques have generally been viewed as things with no less than a hundred years of age under their belts. Meaning the scale slides each year since a lot more items age to suit into that particular time period.Then again, the word antique is employed rather freely from the public, and frequently lands up highlighting the age of the individual utilizing it over the definite definition. For a teenager, for instance, a home kitchen items from the 60’s appears “antique,” while a older adult may see antiques as the numerous items they utilized or spotted in the homes of their grandparents as a kid.Varying Views Among “Experts”Obviously, you may ask several different antiques “experts” what exactly an antique is and you’ll obtain a few different answers. There have already been hot discussions about this very topic when multiple antiques experts have gathered to try and define the word antique.A few experts tend to look more at high design and style whenever deeming an item antique. They view antiques as “masterpieces” of style and of merely the best quality. For this evaluation, anything from primitive furniture of all ages to faceless Amish rag dolls coming from the late twentieth century wouldn’t be regarded antique no matter the scarcity of the object. A number of other experts don’t agree with these people.A great way to view it is the dividing line drawn in which styles totally changed from the old-fashioned look toward the contemporary. Hemlines were reduced and simplified, and Art Deco design was the extremely popular throughout the 1920s stepping into the 1930s. These types of fashion and design developments having a modern curve, and the like within this transitional period, offer a stark distinction into the elegant nature of Victorian, Edwardian, as well as Colonial influences observed in the past decades to hundreds of years.Bearing this in mind, one perspective is to see things made just before 1920 as antiques and newer items as “collectibles.” The antique scale slides with regards to the real age of these items as we go on to move ahead through the calendar, however. The moment 2020 comes around these objects will be regarded as antiques by the U.S. Customs Service definition thus broadly adopted in the field.How Must You Describe Objects You’re Selling?Perhaps even the most honest sellers having the best of intentions can do a miscalculation occasionally to describe their wares. However when sellers use terms improperly, particularly if they do it over and over again, those blunders could quickly ruin their integrity. For this reason alone it’s best if you try to obtain the facts straight.Distinguishing something that is actually a collectible – anything under a hundred years old – as an antique makes smart buyers feel as if you’re simply wanting to pull one over to them. It may also cause you to look ignorant as to what you’re selling, or much worse, dishonest.If the item is clearly newer than a hundred years in age, simply refer to it as a collectible. In case you actually think that a product is over a hundred years in age after doing research, then it’s completely fine to refer to it as an antique. A few online selling sites have got particular groups to adhere to which differentiate antiques from collectibles. You’ll do better by having it right, because potential clients will examine those classes for what they’re searching for apart from depending on keyword searches.Even when you are marketing in an antique shopping mall or in a show, marking and representing your things precisely helps you well. Clients will return over and over again to find out what’s new within your booth should you do your very best to provide them great product which has been carefully investigated and properly sold.Types of AntiquesAs stated over and over before, antiques are items of old things like home furniture and jewelry or uncommon things which have been stored for over a hundred years old. When you are planning to enter antique collecting, then you’ll discover that this is an incredibly satisfying exercise where you can find a number of classes involved.You’ll certainly discover a rare item or thing at numerous avenues such as antique art galleries or at local flea markets and car boot sales and prior to going out and begin purchasing all that hits your curiosity you must first know the types of antique. Generally, antiques are things that where possible over a century old while they’re recognized for being rare, incredible and valuable. Here are a few types of antique items:Antique antique furniture is a valuable interior decorations of old age. Frequently its age, uniqueness, condition, utility, or any other unique features makes a furniture piece appealing as a collectors’ item, and so called an “antique”.Antique furniture might provide the body of a human (like seating or beds), offer storage space, or carry items on horizontal surfaces on top of the ground. Storage furniture (which frequently employs doors, compartments, as well as shelves) is utilized to carry or contain little items like tools, clothes, books, as well as home items. Furniture could be a product of creative style and it is regarded a type of decorative art. Besides furniture’s useful function, it could function a emblematic or religious purpose. Domestic furniture functions to produce, along with furnishings like clocks and lighting, comfy and convenient interior spots. Furniture can be created from numerous materials, such as steel, plastic, as well as wood. Cabinets and cupboard making are terms for the set of skills utilized in the constructing of furniture.Antique JewelryIMG_0539-copyAntique jewellery is jewellery which has hit an age of a hundred years or even more which makes it a witness of history. It’s commonly employed for second hand jewelry and for jewellery produced in earlier (style-)periods and not always pre-worn jewellery. It isn’t a dequalifying designation as numerous items of antique jewellery usually feature fine craftsmanship and superior quality gemstones, and also one-of-a-kind items. Antique jewellery consists of numerous years or eras. All of them has numerous different styles. These periods can include Early Victorian, Georgian, Mid-Victorian, Late Victorian, Crafts and arts era, Edwardian, Art Nouveau, Retro and Art Deco.Throughout the years it was royals who requested and set trends for the various fashions obediently accompanied by the upper class and bourgeoisie. The church too was a vitally important commissioner, even though more for silversmiths compared to goldsmiths.Antique ClocksmaxresdefaultJust as the name suggests, this object refers to mechanical clocks which were made over a hundred years ago. However, mechanical clocks have carried on to be made well into the twentieth century and still being manufactured these days.It must be observed that the majority of mechanical clocks which have been made over the past a hundred years, example the ones that aren’t antique, have been produced in a factory employing mass production methods.Mechanical antique clocks are available in many forms, both ground standing grandfather (longcase) clocks, wall dangling clocks, rack and mantle clocks as well as mount or table clocks. Antique clocks could be run both by weights working under gravity, or perhaps by springs. The two weight driven clocks as well as spring driven clocks are often wrapped by a key or crank (key) over the dial in front of the clock.Antique or historic kitchen items go by many different labels from “culinary antiques” to “vintage kitchenalia”. No matter whether they’re ancient or mid-20th century “retro”, nearly all old cooking, serving, as well as storage objects attract a few collector wherever.Numerous items are simple to recognize, although not all. It’s not at all times obvious if the simple box or pot or implement had a specific title or perhaps a specific use. A set of jars (earthenware, stoneware, glass from the twentieth century) as well as boxes (wooden, tin) was required whenever food was kept at home and groceries were offered unwrapped. Homes got various beaters, paddles, as well as bats – a number of them called beetles – for functions from tenderising meat to working butter to pumping the dirt away from clothes. Basic wooden boards, mixing sticks, and big spoons had a number of uses.At times kitchen collectibles are classified based on what they’re made from. Wood (treen), copper, tinware, stoneware and many others..Edward VIII (Edward Albert Christian George Andrew Patrick David; 23 June 1894 – 28 May 1972) was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Empire and Emperor of India from 20 January 1936 until his abdication in December of the same year.[a]Edward was born during the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria as the eldest child of the Duke and Duchess of York, later King George V and Queen Mary. He was created Prince of Wales on his 16th birthday, seven weeks after his father succeeded as king. As a young man, Edward served in the British Army during the First World War and undertook several overseas tours on behalf of his father. While Prince of Wales, he engaged in a series of sexual affairs that worried both his father and then-British prime minister Stanley Baldwin.Upon his father\'s death in 1936, Edward became the second monarch of the House of Windsor. The new king showed impatience with court protocol, and caused concern among politicians by his apparent disregard for established constitutional conventions. Only months into his reign, a constitutional crisis was caused by his proposal to marry Wallis Simpson, an American who had divorced her first husband and was seeking a divorce from her second. The prime ministers of the United Kingdom and the Dominions opposed the marriage, arguing a divorced woman with two living ex-husbands was politically and socially unacceptable as a prospective queen consort. Additionally, such a marriage would have conflicted with Edward\'s status as titular head of the Church of England, which, at the time, disapproved of remarriage after divorce if a former spouse was still alive. Edward knew the Baldwin government would resign if the marriage went ahead, which could have forced a general election and would have ruined his status as a politically neutral constitutional monarch. When it became apparent he could not marry Simpson and remain on the throne, he abdicated. He was succeeded by his younger brother, George VI. With a reign of 326 days, Edward was one of the shortest-reigning British monarchs to date.After his abdication, Edward was created Duke of Windsor. He married Simpson in France on 3 June 1937, after her second divorce became final. Later that year, the couple toured Nazi Germany, which fed rumours that he was a Nazi sympathiser. During the Second World War, Edward was at first stationed with the British Military Mission to France but after the fall of France was appointed Governor of the Bahamas. After the war, Edward spent the rest of his life in France. He and Wallis remained married until his death in 1972; they had no children.Early lifeEdward (second from left) with his father and younger siblings (Albert and Mary), photograph by his grandmother Alexandra, 1899Edward was born on 23 June 1894 at White Lodge, Richmond Park, on the outskirts of London during the reign of his great-grandmother Queen Victoria.[2] He was the eldest son of the Duke and Duchess of York (later King George V and Queen Mary). His father was the son of the Prince and Princess of Wales (later King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra). His mother was the eldest daughter of Princess Mary Adelaide of Cambridge and Francis, Duke of Teck. At the time of his birth, he was third in the line of succession to the throne, behind his grandfather and father.He was baptised Edward Albert Christian George Andrew Patrick David in the Green Drawing Room of White Lodge on 16 July 1894 by Edward White Benson, Archbishop of Canterbury.[b] The name \"Edward\" was chosen in honour of Edward\'s late uncle Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale, who was known within the family as \"Eddy\" (Edward being among his given names); \"Albert\" was included at the behest of Queen Victoria for her late husband Albert, Prince Consort; \"Christian\" was in honour of his great-grandfather King Christian IX of Denmark; and the last four names – George, Andrew, Patrick and David – came from, respectively, the patron saints of England, Scotland, Ireland and Wales.[4] He was always known to his family and close friends by his last given name, David.[5]As was common practice with upper-class children of the time, Edward and his younger siblings were brought up by nannies rather than directly by their parents. One of Edward\'s early nannies often abused him by pinching him before he was due to be presented to his parents. His subsequent crying and wailing would lead the Duke and Duchess to send him and the nanny away.[6] The nanny was discharged after her mistreatment of the children was discovered, and she was replaced by Charlotte Bill.[7]Edward\'s father, though a harsh disciplinarian,[8] was demonstratively affectionate,[9] and his mother displayed a frolicsome side with her children that belied her austere public image. She was amused by the children making tadpoles on toast for their French master as a prank,[10] and encouraged them to confide in her.[11]EducationEdward as a midshipman on board HMS Hindustan, 1910Initially, Edward was tutored at home by Helen Bricka. When his parents travelled the British Empire for almost nine months following the death of Queen Victoria in 1901, young Edward and his siblings stayed in Britain with their grandparents, Queen Alexandra and King Edward VII, who showered their grandchildren with affection. Upon his parents\' return, Edward was placed under the care of two men, Frederick Finch and Henry Hansell, who virtually brought up Edward and his brothers and sister for their remaining nursery years.[12]Edward was kept under the strict tutorship of Hansell until almost thirteen years old. Private tutors taught him German and French.[13] Edward took the examination to enter the Royal Naval College, Osborne, and began there in 1907. Hansell had wanted Edward to enter school earlier, but the prince\'s father had disagreed.[14] Following two years at Osborne College, which he did not enjoy, Edward moved on to the Royal Naval College at Dartmouth. A course of two years, followed by entry into the Royal Navy, was planned.[15]Edward automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay on 6 May 1910 when his father ascended the throne as George V on the death of Edward VII. He was created Prince of Wales and Earl of Chester a month later on 23 June 1910, his 16th birthday.[16] Preparations for his future as king began in earnest. He was withdrawn from his naval course before his formal graduation, served as midshipman for three months aboard the battleship Hindustan, then immediately entered Magdalen College, Oxford, for which, in the opinion of his biographers, he was underprepared intellectually.[15] A keen horseman, he learned how to play polo with the university club.[17] He left Oxford after eight terms, without any academic qualifications.[15]Prince of WalesEdward was officially invested as Prince of Wales in a special ceremony at Caernarfon Castle on 13 July 1911.[18] The investiture took place in Wales, at the instigation of the Welsh politician David Lloyd George, Constable of the Castle and Chancellor of the Exchequer in the Liberal government.[19] Lloyd George invented a rather fanciful ceremony in the style of a Welsh pageant, and coached Edward to speak a few words in Welsh.[20]Edward in August 1915, during the First World WarWhen the First World War broke out in 1914, Edward had reached the minimum age for active service and was keen to participate.[21] He had joined the Grenadier Guards in June 1914, and although Edward was willing to serve on the front lines, Secretary of State for War Lord Kitchener refused to allow it, citing the immense harm that would occur if the heir apparent to the throne were captured by the enemy.[22] Despite this, Edward witnessed trench warfare first-hand and visited the front line as often as he could, for which he was awarded the Military Cross in 1916. His role in the war, although limited, made him popular among veterans of the conflict.[23] He undertook his first military flight in 1918, and later gained a pilot\'s licence.[24]Edward\'s youngest brother, Prince John, died at the age of 13 on 18 January 1919 after a severe epileptic seizure.[25] Edward, who was 11 years older than John and had hardly known him, saw his death as \"little more than a regrettable nuisance\".[26] He wrote to his mistress of the time that \"[he had] told [her] all about that little brother, and how he was an epileptic. [John]\'s been practically shut up for the last two years anyhow, so no one has ever seen him except the family, and then only once or twice a year. This poor boy had become more of an animal than anything else.\" He also wrote an insensitive letter to his mother which has since been lost.[27] She did not reply, but he felt compelled to write her an apology, in which he stated: \"I feel such a cold hearted and unsympathetic swine for writing all that I did ... No one can realize more than you how little poor Johnnie meant to me who hardly knew him ... I feel so much for you, darling Mama, who was his mother.\"[26]Edward in Ashburton, New Zealand, with returned servicemen, 1920Throughout the 1920s, Edward, as the Prince of Wales, represented his father at home and abroad on many occasions. His rank, travels, good looks, and unmarried status gained him much public attention. At the height of his popularity, he was the most photographed celebrity of his time and he set men\'s fashion.[28] During his 1924 visit to the United States, Men\'s Wear magazine observed, \"The average young man in America is more interested in the clothes of the Prince of Wales than in any other individual on earth.\"[29]Edward visited poverty-stricken areas of Britain,[30] and undertook 16 tours to various parts of the Empire between 1919 and 1935. On a tour of Canada in 1919, he acquired the Bedingfield ranch, near Pekisko, Alberta.[31] He escaped unharmed when the train he was riding in during a tour of Australia was derailed outside Perth in 1920.[32]Edward and his staff wearing kimono (yukata) in Japan, 1922His November 1921 visit to India came during the non-cooperation movement protests for Indian self-rule, and was marked by riots in Bombay. In 1929 Sir Alexander Leith, a leading Conservative in the north of England, persuaded him to make a three-day visit to the County Durham and Northumberland coalfields, where there was much unemployment.[33] From January to April 1931, the Prince of Wales and his brother Prince George travelled 18,000 miles (29,000 km) on a tour of South America, steaming out on the ocean liner Oropesa,[34] and returning via Paris and an Imperial Airways flight from Paris–Le Bourget Airport that landed specially in Windsor Great Park.[35][36]Though widely travelled, Edward shared a widely held racial prejudice against foreigners and many of the Empire\'s subjects, believing that whites were inherently superior.[37] In 1920, on his visit to Australia, he wrote of Indigenous Australians: \"they are the most revolting form of living creatures I\'ve ever seen!! They are the lowest known form of human beings & are the nearest thing to monkeys.\"[38]In 1919, Edward agreed to be president of the organising committee for the proposed British Empire Exhibition at Wembley Park, Middlesex. He wished the Exhibition to include \"a great national sports ground\", and so played a part in the creation of Wembley Stadium.[39]RomancesPortrait by Reginald Grenville Eves, c. 1920By 1917, Edward liked to spend time partying in Paris while he was on leave from his regiment on the Western Front. He was introduced to Parisian courtesan Marguerite Alibert, with whom he became infatuated. He wrote her candid letters, which she kept. After about a year, Edward broke off the affair. In 1923, Alibert was acquitted in a spectacular murder trial after she shot her husband in the Savoy Hotel. Desperate efforts were made by the Royal Household to ensure that Edward\'s name was not mentioned in connection with the trial or Alibert.[40]Edward\'s womanising and reckless behaviour during the 1920s and 1930s worried Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin, King George V, and those close to the prince. George V was disappointed by his son\'s failure to settle down in life, disgusted by his affairs with married women, and reluctant to see him inherit the Crown. \"After I am dead,\" George said, \"the boy will ruin himself in twelve months.\"[41]George V favoured his second son Albert (\"Bertie\") and Albert\'s daughter Elizabeth (\"Lilibet\"), later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth II respectively. He told a courtier, \"I pray to God that my eldest son will never marry and have children, and that nothing will come between Bertie and Lilibet and the throne.\"[42] In 1929, Time magazine reported that Edward teased Albert\'s wife, also named Elizabeth (later the Queen Mother), by calling her \"Queen Elizabeth\". The magazine asked if \"she did not sometimes wonder how much truth there is in the story that he once said he would renounce his rights upon the death of George V – which would make her nickname come true\".[43]Thelma Furness and the Prince of Wales in 1932In 1930, George V gave Edward the lease of Fort Belvedere in Windsor Great Park.[44] There, he continued his relationships with a series of married women, including Freda Dudley Ward and Lady Furness, the American wife of a British peer, who introduced the prince to her friend and fellow American Wallis Simpson. Simpson had divorced her first husband, U.S. Navy officer Win Spencer, in 1927. Her second husband, Ernest Simpson, was a British-American businessman. Wallis Simpson and the Prince of Wales, it is generally accepted, became lovers, while Lady Furness travelled abroad, although the prince adamantly insisted to his father that he was not having an affair with her and that it was not appropriate to describe her as his mistress.[45] Edward\'s relationship with Simpson, however, further weakened his poor relationship with his father. Although his parents met Simpson at Buckingham Palace in 1935,[46] they later refused to receive her.[47]Edward\'s affair with an American divorcée led to such grave concern that the couple were followed by members of the Metropolitan Police Special Branch, who examined in secret the nature of their relationship. An undated report detailed a visit by the couple to an antique shop, where the proprietor later noted \"that the lady seemed to have POW [Prince of Wales] completely under her thumb.\"[48] The prospect of having an American divorcée with a questionable past having such sway over the heir apparent led to anxiety among government and establishment figures.[49]ReignEdward VIII surrounded by heralds of the College of Arms prior to his only State Opening of Parliament, 3 November 1936George V died on 20 January 1936, and Edward ascended the throne as Edward VIII. The next day, accompanied by Simpson, he broke with custom by watching the proclamation of his own accession from a window of St James\'s Palace.[50] He became the first monarch of the British Empire to fly in an aircraft when he flew from Sandringham to London for his Accession Council.[13]Edward caused unease in government circles with actions that were interpreted as interference in political matters. His comment during a tour of depressed villages in South Wales that \"something must be done\"[13] for the unemployed coal miners was seen as an attempt to guide government policy, though he had not proposed any remedy or change in policy. Government ministers were reluctant to send confidential documents and state papers to Fort Belvedere, because it was clear that Edward was paying little attention to them, and it was feared that Simpson and other house guests might read them, improperly or inadvertently revealing government secrets.[51]Edward\'s unorthodox approach to his role also extended to the coinage that bore his image. He broke with the tradition that the profile portrait of each successive monarch faced in the direction opposite to that of his or her predecessor. Edward insisted that he face left (as his father had done),[52] to show the parting in his hair.[53] Only a handful of test coins were struck before the abdication, and all are very rare.[54] When George VI succeeded to the throne he also faced left to maintain the tradition by suggesting that, had any further coins been minted featuring Edward\'s portrait, they would have shown him facing right.[55]Left-facing coinage portrait of Edward VIIIOn 16 July 1936, Jerome Bannigan, alias George Andrew McMahon, produced a loaded revolver as Edward rode on horseback at Constitution Hill, near Buckingham Palace. Police spotted the gun and pounced on him; he was quickly arrested. At Bannigan\'s trial, he alleged that \"a foreign power\" had approached him to kill Edward, that he had informed MI5 of the plan, and that he was merely seeing the plan through to help MI5 catch the real culprits. The court rejected the claims and sent him to jail for a year for \"intent to alarm\".[56] It is now thought that Bannigan had indeed been in contact with MI5, but the veracity of the remainder of his claims remains debatable.[57]In August and September, Edward and Simpson cruised the Eastern Mediterranean on the steam yacht Nahlin. By October it was becoming clear that the new king planned to marry Simpson, especially when divorce proceedings between the Simpsons were brought at Ipswich Assizes.[58] Although gossip about his affair was widespread in the United States, the British media kept silent voluntarily, and the general public knew nothing until early December.[59]AbdicationMain article: Abdication of Edward VIIIEdward VIII and Wallis Simpson on their Mediterranean holiday, 1936On 16 November 1936, Edward invited Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin to Buckingham Palace and expressed his desire to marry Simpson when she became free to remarry. Baldwin informed him that his subjects would deem the marriage morally unacceptable, largely because remarriage after divorce was opposed by the Church of England, and the people would not tolerate Simpson as queen.[60] As king, Edward was the titular head of the Church, and the clergy expected him to support the Church\'s teachings. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Cosmo Gordon Lang, was vocal in insisting that Edward must go.[61]Edward proposed an alternative solution of a morganatic marriage, in which he would remain king but Simpson would not become queen consort. She would enjoy some lesser title instead, and any children they might have would not inherit the throne. This was supported by senior politician Winston Churchill in principle, and some historians suggest that he conceived the plan.[61] In any event, it was ultimately rejected by the British Cabinet[62] as well as other Dominion governments.[63] The other governments\' views were sought pursuant to the Statute of Westminster 1931, which provided in part that \"any alteration in the law touching the Succession to the Throne or the Royal Style and Titles shall hereafter require the assent as well of the Parliaments of all the Dominions as of the Parliament of the United Kingdom.\"[64] The Prime Ministers of Australia (Joseph Lyons), Canada (Mackenzie King) and South Africa (J. B. M. Hertzog) made clear their opposition to the king marrying a divorcée;[65] their Irish counterpart (Éamon de Valera) expressed indifference and detachment, while the Prime Minister of New Zealand (Michael Joseph Savage), having never heard of Simpson before, vacillated in disbelief.[66] Faced with this opposition, Edward at first responded that there were \"not many people in Australia\" and their opinion did not matter.[67]Cypher on a postbox erected during his short reignEdward informed Baldwin that he would abdicate if he could not marry Simpson. Baldwin then presented Edward with three options: give up the idea of marriage; marry against his ministers\' wishes; or abdicate.[68] It was clear that Edward was not prepared to give up Simpson, and he knew that if he married against the advice of his ministers, he would cause the government to resign, prompting a constitutional crisis.[69] He chose to abdicate.[70]Edward duly signed the instruments of abdication[c] at Fort Belvedere on 10 December 1936 in the presence of his younger brothers: Prince Albert, Duke of York, next in line for the throne; Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester; and Prince George, Duke of Kent.[71] The document included these words: \"declare my irrevocable determination to renounce the throne for myself and for my descendants and my desire that effect should be given to this instrument of abdication immediately\".[72] The next day, the last act of his reign was the royal assent to His Majesty\'s Declaration of Abdication Act 1936. As required by the Statute of Westminster, all the Dominions had already consented to the abdication.[1]On the night of 11 December 1936, Edward, now reverted to the title and style of a prince, explained his decision to abdicate in a worldwide BBC radio broadcast. He said, \"I have found it impossible to carry the heavy burden of responsibility and to discharge my duties as king as I would wish to do without the help and support of the woman I love.\" He added that the \"decision was mine and mine alone ... The other person most nearly concerned has tried up to the last to persuade me to take a different course\".[73] Edward departed Britain for Austria the following day; he was unable to join Simpson until her divorce became absolute, several months later.[74] His brother, the Duke of York, succeeded to the throne as George VI. Accordingly, George VI\'s elder daughter, Princess Elizabeth, became heir presumptive.Duke of WindsorOn 12 December 1936, at the accession meeting of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom, George VI announced his intention to make his brother the \"Duke of Windsor\" with the style of Royal Highness.[75] He wanted this to be the first act of his reign, although the formal documents were not signed until 8 March the following year. During the interim, Edward was known as the Duke of Windsor. George VI\'s decision to create Edward a royal duke ensured that he could neither stand for election to the British House of Commons nor speak on political subjects in the House of Lords.[76]Letters Patent dated 27 May 1937 re-conferred the \"title, style, or attribute of Royal Highness\" upon the Duke, but specifically stated that \"his wife and descendants, if any, shall not hold said title or attribute\". Some British ministers advised that the reconfirmation was unnecessary since Edward had retained the style automatically, and further that Simpson would automatically obtain the rank of wife of a prince with the style Her Royal Highness; others maintained that he had lost all royal rank and should no longer carry any royal title or style as an abdicated king, and be referred to simply as \"Mr Edward Windsor\". On 14 April 1937, Attorney General Sir Donald Somervell submitted to Home Secretary Sir John Simon a memorandum summarising the views of Lord Advocate T. M. Cooper, Parliamentary Counsel Sir Granville Ram, and himself: We incline to the view that on his abdication the Duke of Windsor could not have claimed the right to be described as a Royal Highness. In other words, no reasonable objection could have been taken if the King had decided that his exclusion from the lineal succession excluded him from the right to this title as conferred by the existing Letters Patent. The question however has to be considered on the basis of the fact that, for reasons which are readily understandable, he with the express approval of His Majesty enjoys this title and has been referred to as a Royal Highness on a formal occasion and in formal documents. In the light of precedent it seems clear that the wife of a Royal Highness enjoys the same title unless some appropriate express step can be and is taken to deprive her of it. We came to the conclusion that the wife could not claim this right on any legal basis. The right to use this style or title, in our view, is within the prerogative of His Majesty and he has the power to regulate it by Letters Patent generally or in particular circumstances.[77]Château de Candé, the Windsors\' wedding venueThe Duke married Simpson, who had changed her name by deed poll to Wallis Warfield (her birth surname), in a private ceremony on 3 June 1937, at Château de Candé, near Tours, France. When the Church of England refused to sanction the union, a County Durham clergyman, the Reverend Robert Anderson Jardine (Vicar of St Paul\'s, Darlington), offered to perform the ceremony, and the Duke accepted. George VI forbade members of the royal family to attend,[78] to the lasting resentment of the Duke and Duchess of Windsor. Edward had particularly wanted his brothers the dukes of Gloucester and Kent and his second cousin Lord Louis Mountbatten to attend the ceremony.[79]The denial of the style Royal Highness to the Duchess of Windsor caused further conflict, as did the financial settlement. The Government declined to include the Duke or Duchess on the Civil List, and the Duke\'s allowance was paid personally by George VI. The Duke compromised his position with his brother by concealing the extent of his financial worth when they informally agreed on the amount of the allowance. Edward\'s wealth had accumulated from the revenues of the Duchy of Cornwall paid to him as Prince of Wales and ordinarily at the disposal of an incoming king. George VI also paid Edward for Sandringham House and Balmoral Castle, which were Edward\'s personal property, inherited from his father and thus did not automatically pass to George VI on his accession.[80] Edward received approximately £300,000 (equivalent to between £21 million and £140 million in 2021[81]) for both residences which was paid to him in yearly instalments. In the early days of George VI\'s reign the Duke telephoned daily, importuning for money and urging that the Duchess be granted the style of Royal Highness, until the harassed king ordered that the calls not be put through.[82]Relations between the Duke of Windsor and the rest of the royal family were strained for decades. The Duke had assumed that he would settle in Britain after a year or two of exile in France. King George VI (with the support of Queen Mary and his wife Queen Elizabeth) threatened to cut off Edward\'s allowance if he returned to Britain without an invitation.[80] Edward became embittered against his mother, Queen Mary, writing to her in 1939: \"[your last letter][d] destroy[ed] the last vestige of feeling I had left for you ... [and has] made further normal correspondence between us impossible.\"[83]Duke and Duchess of Windsor in Germany, October 1937Edward reviewing SS guards with Robert LeyThe Duke and Duchess meeting Adolf Hitler at BerchtesgadenIn October 1937, the Duke and Duchess visited Nazi Germany, against the advice of the British government, and met Adolf Hitler at his Berghof retreat in Bavaria. The visit was much publicised by the German media. During the visit the Duke gave full Nazi salutes.[84] In Germany, \"they were treated like royalty ... members of the aristocracy would bow and curtsy towards her, and she was treated with all the dignity and status that the duke always wanted\", according to royal biographer Andrew Morton in a 2016 BBC interview.[85]The former Austrian ambassador, Count Albert von Mensdorff-Pouilly-Dietrichstein, who was also a second cousin once removed and friend of George V, believed that Edward favoured German fascism as a bulwark against communism, and even that he initially favoured an alliance with Germany.[86] According to the Duke of Windsor, the experience of \"the unending scenes of horror\"[87] during the First World War led him to support appeasement. Hitler considered Edward to be friendly towards Germany and thought that Anglo-German relations could have been improved through Edward if it were not for the abdication. Albert Speer quoted Hitler directly: \"I am certain through him permanent friendly relations could have been achieved. If he had stayed, everything would have been different. His abdication was a severe loss for us.\"[88] The Duke and Duchess settled in Paris, leasing a mansion in Boulevard Suchet [fr] from late 1938.[89]Second World WarIn May 1939, the Duke was commissioned by NBC to give a radio broadcast[90] (his first since abdicating) during a visit to the First World War battlefields of Verdun. In it he appealed for peace, saying \"I am deeply conscious of the presence of the great company of the dead, and I am convinced that could they make their voices heard they would be with me in what I am about to say. I speak simply as a soldier of the Last War whose most earnest prayer it is that such cruel and destructive madness shall never again overtake mankind. There is no land whose people want war.\" The broadcast was heard across the world by millions.[91][92] It was widely regarded as supporting appeasement,[93] and the BBC refused to broadcast it.[90] It was broadcast outside the United States on shortwave radio[94] and was reported in full by British broadsheet newspapers.[95] On the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939, the Duke and Duchess were brought back to Britain by Louis Mountbatten on board HMS Kelly, and Edward, although he held the rank of field marshal, was made a major-general attached to the British Military Mission in France.[13] In February 1940, the German ambassador in The Hague, Count Julius von Zech-Burkersroda, claimed that the Duke had leaked the Allied war plans for the defence of Belgium,[96] which the Duke later denied.[97] When Germany invaded the north of France in May 1940, the Windsors fled south, first to Biarritz, then in June to Francoist Spain. In July the pair moved to Portugal, where they lived at first in the home of Ricardo Espírito Santo, a Portuguese banker with both British and German contacts.[98] Under the code name Operation Willi, Nazi agents, principally Walter Schellenberg, plotted unsuccessfully to persuade the Duke to leave Portugal and return to Spain, kidnapping him if necessary.[99] Lord Caldecote wrote a warning to Winston Churchill, who by this point was prime minister, that \"[the Duke] is well-known to be pro-Nazi and he may become a centre of intrigue.\"[100] Churchill threatened the Duke with a court-martial if he did not return to British soil.[101]In July 1940, Edward was appointed governor of the Bahamas. The Duke and Duchess left Lisbon on 1 August aboard the American Export Lines steamship Excalibur, which was specially diverted from its usual direct course to New York City so that they could be dropped off at Bermuda on the 9th.[102] They left Bermuda for Nassau on the Canadian National Steamship Company vessel Lady Somers on 15 August, arriving two days later.[103] The Duke did not enjoy being governor and privately referred to the islands as \"a third-class British colony\".[104] The British Foreign Office strenuously objected when the Duke and Duchess planned to cruise aboard a yacht belonging to Swedish magnate Axel Wenner-Gren, whom British and American intelligence wrongly believed to be a close friend of Luftwaffe commander Hermann Göring.[105] The Duke was praised for his efforts to combat poverty on the islands, although he was as contemptuous of the Bahamians as he was of most non-white peoples of the Empire. He said of Étienne Dupuch, the editor of the Nassau Daily Tribune: \"It must be remembered that Dupuch is more than half Negro, and due to the peculiar mentality of this Race, they seem unable to rise to prominence without losing their equilibrium.\"[106] He was praised, even by Dupuch, for his resolution of civil unrest over low wages in Nassau in 1942, even though he blamed the trouble on \"mischief makers – communists\" and \"men of Central European Jewish descent, who had secured jobs as a pretext for obtaining a deferment of draft\".[107] He resigned from the post on 16 March 1945.[13]Many historians have suggested that Adolf Hitler was prepared to reinstate Edward as king in the hope of establishing a fascist puppet government in Britain after Operation Sea Lion.[108] It is widely believed that the Duke and Duchess sympathised with fascism before and during the Second World War, and were moved to the Bahamas to minimise their opportunities to act on those feelings. In 1940 he said: \"In the past 10 years Germany has totally reorganised the order of its society ... Countries which were unwilling to accept such a reorganisation of society and its concomitant sacrifices should direct their policies accordingly.\"[109] During the occupation of France, the Duke asked the German Wehrmacht forces to place guards at his Paris and Riviera homes; they did so.[110] In December 1940, the Duke gave Fulton Oursler of Liberty magazine an interview at Government House in Nassau. Oursler conveyed its content to President Franklin D. Roosevelt in a private meeting at the White House on 23 December 1940.[111] The interview was published on 22 March 1941 and in it the Duke was reported to have said that \"Hitler was the right and logical leader of the German people\" and that the time was coming for President Roosevelt to mediate a peace settlement. The Duke protested that he had been misquoted and misinterpreted.[112]The Allies became sufficiently disturbed by German plots revolving around the Duke that President Roosevelt ordered covert surveillance of the Duke and Duchess when they visited Palm Beach, Florida, in April 1941. Duke Carl Alexander of Württemberg (then a monk in an American monastery) had told the Federal Bureau of Investigation that the Duchess had slept with the German ambassador in London, Joachim von Ribbentrop, in 1936; had remained in constant contact with him; and had continued to leak secrets.[113]Author Charles Higham claimed that Anthony Blunt, an MI5 agent and Soviet spy, acting on orders from the British royal family, made a successful secret trip to Schloss Friedrichshof in Allied-occupied Germany towards the end of the war to retrieve sensitive letters between the Duke of Windsor and Adolf Hitler and other leading Nazis.[114] What is certain is that George VI sent the Royal Librarian, Owen Morshead, accompanied by Blunt, then working part-time in the Royal Library as well as for British intelligence, to Friedrichshof in March 1945 to secure papers relating to the German Empress Victoria, the eldest child of Queen Victoria. Looters had stolen part of the castle\'s archive, including surviving letters between daughter and mother, as well as other valuables, some of which were recovered in Chicago after the war. The papers rescued by Morshead and Blunt, and those returned by the American authorities from Chicago, were deposited in the Royal Archives.[115] In the late 1950s, documents recovered by U.S. troops in Marburg, Germany, in May 1945, since titled the Marburg Files, were published following more than a decade of suppression, enhancing theories of the Duke\'s sympathies for Nazi ideologies.[116][117]After the war, the Duke admitted in his memoirs that he admired the Germans, but he denied being pro-Nazi. Of Hitler he wrote: \"[the] Führer struck me as a somewhat ridiculous figure, with his theatrical posturings and his bombastic pretensions.\"[118] In the 1950s, journalist Frank Giles heard the Duke blame British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden for helping to \"precipitate the war through his treatment of Mussolini ... that\'s what [Eden] did, he helped to bring on the war ... and of course Roosevelt and the Jews\".[119] During the 1960s the Duke said privately to a friend, Patrick Balfour, 3rd Baron Kinross, \"I never thought Hitler was such a bad chap.\"[120]Later lifeThe Duke of Windsor in 1945Clementine (far left) and Winston Churchill with the Duke of Windsor on the French Riviera in 1948At the end of the war, the couple returned to France and spent the remainder of their lives essentially in retirement as the Duke never held another official role. Correspondence between the Duke and Kenneth de Courcy, dated between 1946 and 1949, emerged in a U.S. library in 2009. The letters suggest a scheme where the Duke would return to England and place himself in a position for a possible regency. The health of George VI was failing and de Courcy was concerned about the influence of the Mountbatten family over the young Princess Elizabeth. De Courcy suggested the Duke buy a working agricultural estate within an easy drive of London in order to gain favour with the British public and make himself available should the King become incapacitated. The Duke, however, hesitated and the King recovered from his surgery.[121]The Duke\'s allowance was supplemented by government favours and illegal currency trading.[13][122][123] The City of Paris provided the Duke with a house at 4 route du Champ d\'Entraînement, on the Neuilly-sur-Seine side of the Bois de Boulogne, for a nominal rent.[124] The French government also exempted him from paying income tax,[122][125] and the couple were able to buy goods duty-free through the British embassy and the military commissary.[125] In 1952, they bought and renovated a weekend country retreat, Le Moulin de la Tuilerie at Gif-sur-Yvette, the only property the couple ever owned themselves.[126] In 1951, the Duke had produced a ghost-written memoir, A King\'s Story, in which he expressed disagreement with liberal politics.[19] The royalties from the book added to their income.[122]The Duke and Duchess effectively took on the role of celebrities and were regarded as part of café society in the 1950s and 1960s. They hosted parties and shuttled between Paris and New York; Gore Vidal, who met the Windsors socially, reported on the vacuity of the Duke\'s conversation.[127] The couple doted on the pug dogs they kept.[128]In June 1953, instead of attending the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II, his niece, in London, the Duke and Duchess watched the ceremony on television in Paris. The Duke said that it was contrary to precedent for a Sovereign or former Sovereign to attend any coronation of another. He was paid to write articles on the ceremony for the Sunday Express and Woman\'s Home Companion, as well as a short book, The Crown and the People, 1902–1953.[129]U.S. President Richard Nixon and the Duke and Duchess of Windsor in 1970In 1955, they visited President Dwight D. Eisenhower at the White House. The couple appeared on Edward R. Murrow\'s television-interview show Person to Person in 1956,[130] and in a 50-minute BBC television interview in 1970. On 4 April of that year President Richard Nixon invited them as guests of honour to a dinner at the White House with Chief Justice Warren E. Burger, Charles Lindbergh, Alice Roosevelt Longworth, Arnold Palmer, George H. W. Bush, and Frank Borman.[131][132]The royal family never fully accepted the Duchess. Queen Mary refused to receive her formally. However, Edward sometimes met his mother and his brother, George VI; he attended George\'s funeral in 1952. Queen Mary remained angry with Edward and indignant over his marriage to Wallis: \"To give up all this for that\", she said.[133] In 1965, the Duke and Duchess returned to London. They were visited by Elizabeth II, his sister-in-law Princess Marina, Duchess of Kent, and his sister Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of Harewood. A week later, the Princess Royal died, and they attended her memorial service. In 1967, they joined the royal family for the centenary of Queen Mary\'s birth. The last royal ceremony the Duke attended was the funeral of Princess Marina in 1968.[134] He declined an invitation from Elizabeth II to attend the investiture of the Prince of Wales in 1969, replying that Prince Charles would not want his \"aged great-uncle\" there.[135]In the 1960s, the Duke\'s health deteriorated. Michael E. DeBakey operated on him in Houston for an aneurysm of the abdominal aorta in December 1964, and Sir Stewart Duke-Elder treated a detached retina in his left eye in February 1965. In late 1971, the Duke, who was a smoker from an early age, was diagnosed with throat cancer and underwent cobalt therapy. On 18 May 1972, Queen Elizabeth II visited the Duke and Duchess of Windsor while on a state visit to France; she spoke with the Duke for fifteen minutes, but only the Duchess appeared with the royal party for a photocall as the Duke was too ill.[136]Death and legacyEdward\'s grave at the Royal Burial Ground, FrogmoreOn 28 May 1972, ten days after the Queen\'s visit, the Duke died at his home in Paris, less than a month before his 78th birthday. His body was returned to Britain, lying in state at St George\'s Chapel, Windsor Castle. The funeral service took place in the chapel on 5 June in the presence of the Queen, the royal family, and the Duchess of Windsor, who stayed at Buckingham Palace during her visit. He was buried in the Royal Burial Ground behind the Royal Mausoleum of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert at Frogmore.[137] Until a 1965 agreement with the Queen, the Duke and Duchess had planned for a burial in a cemetery plot they had purchased at Green Mount Cemetery in Baltimore, where the Duchess\'s father was interred.[138] Frail, and suffering increasingly from dementia, the Duchess died in 1986, and was buried alongside her husband.[139]In the view of historians, such as Philip Williamson writing in 2007, the popular perception in the 21st century that the abdication was driven by politics rather than religious morality is false and arises because divorce has become much more common and socially acceptable. To modern sensibilities, the religious restrictions that prevented Edward from continuing as king while planning to marry Simpson \"seem, wrongly, to provide insufficient explanation\" for his abdication.[140]Honours and armsRoyal Standard of the Duke of WindsorHonoursPortrait of Edward in the robes of the Order of the Garter by Arthur Stockdale Cope, 1912British Commonwealth and Empire honours KG: Royal Knight of the Garter, 1910[141] MC: Military Cross, 1916[142] GCMG: Grand Master and Knight Grand Cross of St Michael and St George, 1917[141] GBE: Grand Master and Knight Grand Cross of the British Empire, 1917[141] ADC: Personal aide-de-camp, 3 June 1919[143] GCVO: Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order, 1920[141] PC: Privy Counsellor, (United Kingdom) 1920[141] GCSI: Knight Grand Commander of the Star of India, 1921[141] GCIE: Knight Grand Commander of the Indian Empire, 1921[141] Royal Victorian Chain, 1921[141] KT: Extra Knight of the Thistle, 1922[141] GCStJ: Bailiff Grand Cross of St John, 12 June 1926[144] KStJ: Knight of Justice of St John, 2 June 1917[145] KP: Knight of St Patrick, 1927[141] PC: Privy Councillor of Canada, 1927[146] GCB: Knight Grand Cross of the Bath, 1936[141] ISO: Companion of the Imperial Service Order, 23 June 1910[147] FRS: Royal Fellow of the Royal Society[141]Foreign honours Grand Duchy of Hesse Knight of the Golden Lion, 23 June 1911[148] Spain Knight of the Golden Fleece, 22 June 1912[149] French Third Republic Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour, August 1912[150] Denmark Knight of the Elephant, 17 March 1914[151] Norway Grand Cross of St. Olav, with Collar, 6 April 1914[152] Kingdom of Italy Knight of the Annunciation, 21 June 1915[153] French Third Republic Croix de Guerre, 1915 Russian Empire Knight of St. George, 3rd Class, 1916[154] Thailand Knight of the Order of the Royal House of Chakri, 16 August 1917[155] Kingdom of Romania Order of Michael the Brave, 1st Class, 1918[154] Kingdom of Italy War Merit Cross, 1919 Kingdom of Egypt Grand Cordon of the Order of Mohamed Ali, 1922[154] Sweden Knight of the Seraphim, 12 November 1923[156] Kingdom of Romania Collar of the Order of Carol I, 1924[154] Chile Order of Merit, 1st Class, 1925[154] Bolivia Grand Cross of the Condor of the Andes, 1931[154] Peru Grand Cross of the Sun of Peru, 1931[154] Portugal Grand Cross of the Sash of the Two Orders, 25 April 1931 – during his visit to Lisbon[157] Brazil Grand Cross of the Southern Cross, 1933[154] San Marino Grand Cross of St. Agatha, 1935[154]Military ranks 22 June 1911: Midshipman, Royal Navy[158] 17 March 1913: Lieutenant, Royal Navy[158] 18 November 1914: Lieutenant, 1st Battalion, Grenadier Guards, British Army. (First World War, Flanders and Italy)[158] 10 March 1916: Captain, British Army[158] 1918: Temporary Major, British Army[158] 15 April 1919: Colonel, British Army[158] 8 July 1919: Captain, Royal Navy[158] 5 December 1922: Group Captain, Royal Air Force[158][159] 1 September 1930: Vice-Admiral, Royal Navy; Lieutenant-General, British Army;[160] Air Marshal, Royal Air Force[161] 1 January 1935: Admiral, Royal Navy; General, British Army; Air Chief Marshal, Royal Air Force[162] 21 January 1936: Admiral of the Fleet, Royal Navy; Field Marshal, British Army; Marshal of the Royal Air Force[158] 3 September 1939: Major-General, British Army[163]ArmsEdward\'s coat of arms as the Prince of Wales was the royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom, differenced with a label of three points argent, with an inescutcheon representing Wales surmounted by a coronet (identical to those of Charles III when he was Prince of Wales). As Sovereign, he bore the royal arms undifferenced. After his abdication, he used the arms again differenced by a label of three points argent, but this time with the centre point bearing an imperial crown.[164] Coat of arms as Prince of Wales (granted 1911)[165] Coat of arms as Prince of Wales (granted 1911)[165] Coat of arms as King of the United Kingdom Coat of arms as King of the United Kingdom Scottish coat of arms as King of the United Kingdom Scottish coat of arms as King of the United Kingdom Coat of arms as Duke of Windsor Coat of arms as Duke of WindsorAncestryAncestors of Edward VIII[166]See also Cultural depictions of Edward VIII of the United Kingdom Abandoned coronation of Edward VIII List of prime ministers of Edward VIIINotesThe instrument of abdication was signed on 10 December, and given legislative form by His Majesty\'s Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 the following day. The parliament of the Union of South Africa retroactively approved the abdication with effect from 10 December, and the Irish Free State recognised the abdication on 12 December.[1]His twelve godparents were: Queen Victoria (his paternal great-grandmother); the King and Queen of Denmark (his paternal great-grandparents, for whom his maternal uncle Prince Adolphus of Teck and his paternal aunt the Duchess of Fife stood proxy); the King of Württemberg (his mother\'s distant cousin, for whom his granduncle the Duke of Connaught stood proxy); the Queen of Greece (his grandaunt, for whom his paternal aunt Princess Victoria of Wales stood proxy); the Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (his granduncle, for whom Prince Louis of Battenberg stood proxy); the Prince and Princess of Wales (his paternal grandparents); the Tsarevich (his father\'s cousin); the Duke of Cambridge (his maternal granduncle and Queen Victoria\'s cousin); and the Duke and Duchess of Teck (his maternal grandparents).[3]There were fifteen separate copies – one for each Dominion, the Irish Free State, India, the House of Commons, the House of Lords and the Prime Minister, among others.[71] She had asked Alec Hardinge to write to the Duke explaining that he could not be invited to his father\'s memorial.[83]ReferencesHeard, Andrew (1990), Canadian Independence, Simon Fraser University, Canada, archived from the original on 21 February 2009, retrieved 1 May 2010Windsor, p. 1\"No. 26533\". 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(1998), \"11 July 1920\", Letters From a Prince: Edward to Mrs. Freda Dudley Ward 1918–1921, Little, Brown & Co, ISBN 978-0-7515-2590-8Grant, Philip (January 2012), The British Empire Exhibition, 1924/25 (PDF), Brent Council, archived (PDF) from the original on 16 May 2017, retrieved 18 July 2016Rose, Andrew (2013), The Prince, the Princess and the Perfect Murder, Hodder & Stoughton reviewed in Stonehouse, Cheryl (5 April 2013), \"A new book brings to light the scandalous story of Edward VIII\'s first great love\", Express Newspapers, archived from the original on 19 September 2020, retrieved 1 July 2020See also: Godfrey, pp. 138, 143, 299; Ziegler, pp. 89–90Middlemas, Keith; Barnes, John (1969), Baldwin: A Biography, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, p. 976, ISBN 978-0-297-17859-0Airlie, Mabell (1962), Thatched with Gold, London: Hutchinson, p. 197\"Foreign News: P\'incess Is Three\", Time, 29 April 1929, archived from the original on 27 February 2014, retrieved 1 May 2010Windsor, p. 235Ziegler, p. 233Windsor, p. 255Bradford, p. 142Bowcott, Owen; Bates, Stephen (30 January 2003), \"Car dealer was Wallis Simpson\'s secret lover\", The Guardian, London, archived from the original on 28 December 2013, retrieved 1 May 2010Ziegler, pp. 231–234Windsor, p. 265; Ziegler, p. 245Ziegler, pp. 273–274Windsor, pp. 293–294A. 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Edit this at Wikidata Portraits of Edward, Duke of Windsor at the National Portrait Gallery, London Edit this at Wikidata Newspaper clippings about Edward VIII in the 20th Century Press Archives of the ZBWEdward VIIIHouse of WindsorCadet branch of the House of WettinBorn: 23 June 1894 Died: 28 May 1972Regnal titlesPreceded byGeorge V King of the United Kingdom and theBritish Dominions; Emperor of India20 January – 11 December 1936 Succeeded byGeorge VIBritish royaltyPreceded byGeorge (V) Prince of WalesDuke of Cornwall; Duke of Rothesay1910–1936 VacantTitle next held byCharles (III)Government officesPreceded bySir Charles Dundas Governor of the Bahamas1940–1945 Succeeded bySir William Lindsay MurphyHonorary titlesVacantTitle last held byThe Prince of Wales Grand Master of the Order of St Michael and St George1917–1936 Succeeded byThe Earl of AthloneNew title Grand Master of the Order of the British Empire1917–1936 Succeeded byQueen MaryAir Commodore-in-Chief of the Auxiliary Air Force1932–1936 Succeeded byKing George VIAcademic officesNew office Chancellor of the University of Cape Town1918–1936 Succeeded byJan SmutsArticles and topics related to Edward VIII vteAbdication of Edward VIII Edward VIII Wallis SimpsonPeople Royal Family Prince Albert (Edward VIII\'s brother, later George VI) Prince Henry (Edward VIII\'s brother) Prince George (Edward VIII\'s brother) Queen Mary (Edward VIII\'s mother)Officials Stanley Baldwin (Prime Minister of the United Kingdom) Clement Attlee (Leader of the Opposition in the United Kingdom) Winston Churchill (MP and supporter of Edward VIII) William Lyon Mackenzie King (Prime Minister of Canada) Joseph Lyons (Prime Minister of Australia) Michael Joseph Savage (Prime Minister of New Zealand) J. B. M. Hertzog (Prime Minister of South Africa) Éamon de Valera (President of the Executive Council of the Irish Free State) Stanley Bruce (High Commissioner of Australia to the United Kingdom)Clergy Cosmo Gordon Lang (Archbishop of Canterbury) Alfred Blunt (Bishop of Bradford)Other Alec Hardinge (Edward VIII\'s private secretary) Alan Lascelles (Edward VIII\'s assistant private secretary) Walter Monckton (advisor to Edward VIII) John Theodore Goddard (Mrs Simpson\'s solicitor) Ernest Simpson (Mrs Simpson\'s husband)Legal documents His Majesty\'s Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 (United Kingdom) Executive Authority (External Relations) Act 1936 (Ireland) His Majesty King Edward the Eighth\'s Abdication Act, 1937 (South Africa) Succession to the Throne Act, 1937 (Canada)Cultural depictions Edward & Mrs. Simpson (1978) The Woman He Loved (1988) Bertie and Elizabeth (2002) Wallis & Edward (2005) The King\'s Speech (2010) W.E. (2012) The Crown (S1 E3): \"Windsor\" (2016)Related events Abandoned coronation of Edward VIII 1937 tour of Germany by the Duke and Duchess of Windsor Funeral of Edward, Duke of Windsor vteEnglish, Scottish and British monarchsMonarchs of England until 1603 Monarchs of Scotland until 1603 Alfred the Great Edward the Elder Ælfweard Æthelstan Edmund I Eadred Eadwig Edgar the Peaceful Edward the Martyr Æthelred the Unready Sweyn Edmund Ironside Cnut Harold I Harthacnut Edward the Confessor Harold Godwinson Edgar Ætheling William I William II Henry I Stephen Matilda Henry II Henry the Young King Richard I John Henry III Edward I Edward II Edward III Richard II Henry IV Henry V Henry VI Edward IV Edward V Richard III Henry VII Henry VIII Edward VI Jane Mary I and Philip Elizabeth I Kenneth I MacAlpin Donald I Constantine I Áed Giric Eochaid Donald II Constantine II Malcolm I Indulf Dub Cuilén Amlaíb Kenneth II Constantine III Kenneth III Malcolm II Duncan I Macbeth Lulach Malcolm III Donald III Duncan II Edgar Alexander I David I Malcolm IV William I Alexander II Alexander III Margaret John Robert I David II Edward Balliol Robert II Robert III James I James II James III James IV James V Mary I James VI Monarchs of England and Scotland after the Union of the Crowns from 1603 James I and VI Charles I Charles II James II and VII William III and II and Mary II Anne British monarchs after the Acts of Union 1707 Anne George I George II George III George IV William IV Victoria Edward VII George V Edward VIII George VI Elizabeth II Charles III Debatable or disputed rulers are in italics. vteEmperors of India Victoria Edward VII George V Edward VIII George VI vteMonarchy in CanadaThe Crown Monarchy in the Canadian provinces BC AB SK MB ON QC NB NS PE NLMonarchs Victoria Edward VII George V Edward VIII George VI Elizabeth II Charles IIIViceroys Governor General of Canada List Lieutenant governors in Canada BC List AB List SK List MB List ON List QC List NB List NS List PE List NL List Territorial Commissioners Advisory Committee on Vice-Regal AppointmentsConstitutional King-in-Council King-in-Parliament King-on-the-Bench King\'s peace The Canadian Crown and the Canadian Armed Forces The Canadian Crown and Indigenous peoples of CanadaLegal Crown copyright Crown corporations King\'s Consent King\'s Printer Royal charter Royal commissionsCeremonial and symbolic Chapels Royal Crown Collection Royal symbols Royal tours 1786–1999 2000–present Special address Title and styleRelated Canadian Secretary to the King History of monarchy in Canada Debate on the monarchy in Canada vteBritish princesThe generations indicate descent from George I, who formalised the use of the titles prince and princess for members of the British royal family.1st generation King George II2nd generation Frederick, Prince of Wales Prince George William Prince William, Duke of Cumberland3rd generation King George III Prince Edward, Duke of York and Albany Prince William Henry, Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh Prince Henry, Duke of Cumberland and Strathearn Prince Frederick4th generation King George IV Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany King William IV Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn King Ernest Augustus of Hanover Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge Prince Octavius Prince Alfred Prince William Frederick, Duke of Gloucester and Edinburgh5th generation Prince Albert1 King George V of Hanover Prince George, Duke of Cambridge6th generation King Edward VII Prince Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught and Strathearn Prince Leopold, Duke of Albany Prince Ernest Augustus7th generation Prince Albert Victor, Duke of Clarence and Avondale King George V Prince Alexander John of Wales Alfred, Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Prince Arthur of Connaught Prince Charles Edward, Duke of Albany and of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Prince George William of Hanover Prince Christian of Hanover Prince Ernest Augustus, Duke of Brunswick8th generation King Edward VIII King George VI Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester Prince George, Duke of Kent Prince John Alastair, 2nd Duke of Connaught and Strathearn Johann Leopold, Hereditary Prince of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Prince Hubertus of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha Prince Ernest Augustus of Hanover Prince George William of Hanover9th generation Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh2 Prince William of Gloucester Prince Richard, Duke of Gloucester Prince Edward, Duke of Kent Prince Michael of Kent10th generation King Charles III Prince Andrew, Duke of York Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex and Forfar11th generation William, Prince of Wales Prince Harry, Duke of Sussex James Mountbatten-Windsor, Viscount Severn312th generation Prince George of Wales Prince Louis of Wales Archie Mountbatten-Windsor31 Not a British prince by birth, but created Prince Consort. 2 Not a British prince by birth, but created a Prince of the United Kingdom. 3 Status debatable; see James, Viscount Severn#Titles and styles and Archie Mountbatten-Windsor#Title and succession for details.Princes that lost their title and status or did not use the title are shown in italics. vtePrinces of Wales Edward (1301–1307) Edward (1343–1376) Richard (1376–1377) Henry (1399–1413) Edward (1454–1471) Richard (1460; disputed) Edward (1471–1483) Edward (1483–1484) Arthur (1489–1502) Henry (1504–1509) Edward (1537–1547) Henry (1610–1612) Charles (1616–1625) Charles (1641–1649) James (1688) George (1714–1727) Frederick (1729–1751) George (1751–1760) George (1762–1820) Albert Edward (1841–1901) George (1901–1910) Edward (1910–1936) Charles (1958–2022) William (2022–present) See also: Principality of Wales vteDukes of Cornwall Edward (1337–1376) Richard (1376–1377) Henry (1399–1413) Henry (1421–1422) Edward (1453–1471) Richard (1460; disputed) Edward (1470–1483) Edward (1483–1484) Arthur (1486–1502) Henry (1502–1509) Henry (1511) Edward (1537–1547) Henry Frederick (1603–1612) Charles (1612–1625) Charles (1630–1649) James (1688–1701/2) George (1714–1727) Frederick (1727–1751) George (1762–1820) Albert Edward (1841–1901) George (1901–1910) Edward (1910–1936) Charles (1952–2022) William (2022–present) Cornwall Portal vteDukes of Rothesay David (1398–1402) James (1402–1406) Alexander (1430) James (1430–1437) James (1452–1460) James (1473–1488) James (1507–1508) Arthur (1509–1510) James (1512–1513) James (1540–1541) James (1566–1567) Henry Frederick (1594–1612) Charles (1612–1625) Charles James (1629) Charles (1630–1649) James (1688–1689) George (1714–1727) Frederick (1727–1751) George (1762–1820) Albert Edward (1841–1901) George (1901–1910) Edward (1910–1936) Charles (1952–2022) William (2022–present) vtePrinces of Saxe-Coburg and GothaForefather Duke Francis I*1st generation Duke Ernest I* Prince Ferdinand* King Leopold I of the Belgians*2nd generation Ducal Duke Ernest II* Albert, Prince Consort of the United Kingdom*Koháry King Ferdinand II of Portugal and the Algarves* Prince August* Prince Leopold*Belgium Crown Prince Louis Philippe King Leopold II Prince Philippe3rd generation United Kingdom King Edward VII Duke Alfred I Prince Arthur Prince LeopoldPortugal King Pedro V King Luís I Infante João Infante Fernando Infante AugustoKoháry Prince Philipp Prince Ludwig August Tsar Ferdinand I of the BulgariansBelgium Prince Leopold Prince Baudouin King Albert I4th generation United Kingdom Prince Albert Victor King George V Hereditary Prince Alfred Prince Arthur Duke Charles Edward IPortugal King Carlos I Infante AfonsoKoháry Prince Leopold Clement Prince Pedro Augusto Prince August Leopold Prince Joseph Ferdinand Prince Ludwig GastonBulgaria Tsar Boris III Prince KirilBelgium King Leopold III Prince Charles5th generation United Kingdom King Edward VIII King George VI Prince Henry Prince George Prince John Prince AlastairDucal Hereditary Prince Johann Leopold Prince Hubertus Prince Friedrich JosiasPortugal Prince Luís Filipe King Manuel IIKoháry Prince Rainer Prince PhilippBulgaria Tsar Simeon IIBelgium King Baudouin I King Albert II Prince Alexandre6th generation Ducal Prince AndreasKoháry Prince Johannes HeinrichBulgaria Prince Kardam Prince KyrilBelgium King Philippe I Prince Laurent7th generation Bulgaria Prince BorisBelgium Prince Gabriel Prince Emmanuel*Titled as Princes of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld before 11 February 1826 vteGrand Masters of the Order of St Michael and St George Sir Thomas Maitland The Prince Adolphus, Duke of Cambridge Prince George, Duke of Cambridge The Prince George, Prince of Wales Vacant The Prince Edward, Prince of Wales Alexander Cambridge, 1st Earl of Athlone Edward Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis Prince Edward, Duke of Kent StMichaelandStGeorgeInsignia.jpg vteHeads of State of South AfricaMonarch (1910–1961) George V Edward VIII George VI Elizabeth II Red Ensign of South Africa (1912–1951).svgFlag of South Africa (1928–1994).svgFlag of South Africa.svgState President (1961–1994)(under Apartheid) Charles Robberts Swart Eben Dönges† Tom Naudé* Jim Fouché Jan de Klerk* Nico Diederichs† Marais Viljoen* John Vorster Marais Viljoen P. W. Botha F. W. de KlerkPresident (from 1994)(post-Apartheid) Nelson Mandela Thabo Mbeki Ivy Matsepe-Casaburri* Kgalema Motlanthe Jacob Zuma Cyril Ramaphosa†Died in office *Acting PresidentAuthority control Edit this at WikidataCategories: Edward VIII1894 births1972 deaths19th-century British people20th-century Bahamian people20th-century British monarchsAbdication of Edward VIIIAlumni of Magdalen College, OxfordBritish Army personnel of World War IBritish emigrants to FranceBritish field marshalsBritish governors of the BahamasBurials at the Royal Burial Ground, FrogmoreChildren of George VDeaths from cancer in FranceDeaths from throat cancerDukes created by George VIDukes of CornwallDukes of RothesayEmperors of IndiaEnglish memoiristsFreemasons of the United Grand Lodge of EnglandGrand Crosses of the Order of Christ (Portugal)Grand Crosses of the Order of AvizGrand Crosses of the Order of the Sun of PeruGrenadier Guards officersHeads of state of CanadaHeads of state of New ZealandHeirs to the British throneHigh Stewards of ScotlandHonorary Fellows of the Royal Society of EdinburghHouse of WindsorKings of the Irish Free StateKnights Grand Commander of the Order of the Indian EmpireKnights Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of IndiaBailiffs Grand Cross of the Order of St JohnKnights of St PatrickKnights of the GarterKnights of the Golden Fleece of SpainMarshals of the Royal Air ForceMembers of the Queen\'s Privy Council for CanadaMonarchs of AustraliaMonarchs of South AfricaMonarchs of the Isle of ManMonarchs of the United KingdomMonarchs who abdicatedPeople educated at the Royal Naval College, OsbornePeople from Richmond, LondonPeople of the Victorian eraPrinces of the United KingdomPrinces of WalesRecipients of the Military CrossRoyal Navy admirals of the fleetBritish princesMilitary personnel from SurreySons of emperorsSons of kingsElizabeth IIHead of the CommonwealthFormal photograph of Elizabeth facing rightFormal photograph, 1958Queen of the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms (more...)Reign 6 February 1952 – 8 September 2022[a]Coronation 2 June 1953Predecessor George VISuccessor Charles IIIPrime ministers See listBorn Princess Elizabeth of York21 April 1926Mayfair, London, EnglandDied 8 September 2022 (aged 96)Balmoral Castle, Aberdeenshire, ScotlandBurial 19 September 2022King George VI Memorial Chapel, St George\'s Chapel, Windsor CastleSpouse Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh(m. 1947; died 2021)IssueDetail Charles IIIAnne, Princess RoyalPrince Andrew, Duke of YorkPrince Edward, Earl of Wessex and ForfarNamesElizabeth Alexandra MaryHouse WindsorFather George VIMother Elizabeth Bowes-LyonSignature Elizabeth\'s signature in black inkElizabeth II (Elizabeth Alexandra Mary; 21 April 1926 – 8 September 2022) was Queen of the United Kingdom and other Commonwealth realms from 6 February 1952 until her death in 2022. She was queen regnant of 32 sovereign states during her lifetime and 15 at the time of her death.[a] Her reign of 70 years and 214 days was the longest of any British monarch and the longest verified reign of any female sovereign in history.Elizabeth was born in Mayfair, London, as the first child of the Duke and Duchess of York (later King George VI and Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother). Her father acceded to the throne in 1936 upon the abdication of his brother King Edward VIII, making Princess Elizabeth the heir presumptive. She was educated privately at home and began to undertake public duties during the Second World War, serving in the Auxiliary Territorial Service. In November 1947, she married Philip Mountbatten, a former prince of Greece and Denmark, and their marriage lasted 73 years until his death in 2021. They had four children: Charles, Anne, Andrew, and Edward.When her father died in February 1952, Elizabeth—then 25 years old—became queen of seven independent Commonwealth countries: the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Pakistan, and Ceylon (known today as Sri Lanka), as well as Head of the Commonwealth. Elizabeth reigned as a constitutional monarch through major political changes such as the Troubles in Northern Ireland, devolution in the United Kingdom, the decolonisation of Africa, and the United Kingdom\'s accession to the European Communities and withdrawal from the European Union. The number of her realms varied over time as territories gained independence and some realms became republics. As queen, Elizabeth was served by more than 170 prime ministers across her realms. Her many historic visits and meetings included state visits to China in 1986, to Russia in 1994, and to the Republic of Ireland in 2011, and meetings with five popes.Significant events included Elizabeth\'s coronation in 1953 and the celebrations of her Silver, Golden, Diamond, and Platinum jubilees in 1977, 2002, 2012, and 2022, respectively. Although she faced occasional republican sentiment and media criticism of her family—particularly after the breakdowns of her children\'s marriages, her annus horribilis in 1992, and the death in 1997 of her former daughter-in-law Diana, Princess of Wales—support for the monarchy in the United Kingdom remained consistently high throughout her lifetime, as did her personal popularity.[1] Elizabeth died on 8 September 2022 at Balmoral Castle in Aberdeenshire, at the age of 96, and was succeeded by her eldest child, King Charles III. Her state funeral was the first to be held in the United Kingdom since that of Winston Churchill in 1965.Elizabeth gave birth to her third child, Prince Andrew, on 19 February 1960, which was the first birth to a reigning British monarch since 1857.[95] Her fourth child, Prince Edward, was born on 10 March 1964.[96]In addition to performing traditional ceremonies, Elizabeth also instituted new practices. Her first royal walkabout, meeting ordinary members of the public, took place during a tour of Australia and New Zealand in 1970.[97]Acceleration of decolonisationIn Queensland, Australia, 1970With President Tito of Yugoslavia in Belgrade, 1972The 1960s and 1970s saw an acceleration in the decolonisation of Africa and the Caribbean. More than 20 countries gained independence from Britain as part of a planned transition to self-government. In 1965, however, the Rhodesian prime minister, Ian Smith, in opposition to moves towards majority rule, unilaterally declared independence while expressing \"loyalty and devotion\" to Elizabeth, declaring her \"Queen of Rhodesia\".[98] Although Elizabeth formally dismissed him, and the international community applied sanctions against Rhodesia, his regime survived for over a decade.[99] As Britain\'s ties to its former empire weakened, the British government sought entry to the European Community, a goal it achieved in 1973.[100]Elizabeth toured Yugoslavia in October 1972, becoming the first British monarch to visit a communist country.[101] She was received at the airport by President Josip Broz Tito, and a crowd of thousands greeted her in Belgrade.[102]In February 1974, the British prime minister, Edward Heath, advised Elizabeth to call a general election in the middle of her tour of the Austronesian Pacific Rim, requiring her to fly back to Britain.[103] The election resulted in a hung parliament; Heath\'s Conservatives were not the largest party, but could stay in office if they formed a coalition with the Liberals. When discussions on forming a coalition foundered, Heath resigned as prime minister and Elizabeth asked the Leader of the Opposition, Labour\'s Harold Wilson, to form a government.[104]A year later, at the height of the 1975 Australian constitutional crisis, the Australian prime minister, Gough Whitlam, was dismissed from his post by Governor-General Sir John Kerr, after the Opposition-controlled Senate rejected Whitlam\'s budget proposals.[105] As Whitlam had a majority in the House of Representatives, Speaker Gordon Scholes appealed to Elizabeth to reverse Kerr\'s decision. She declined, saying she would not interfere in decisions reserved by the Constitution of Australia for the Governor-General.[106] The crisis fuelled Australian republicanism.